NATURE 


JTUDY 


John  Swett 


/ 


ONE    HUNDRED    LESSONS 


NATURE    STUDY 


AROUND  MY  SCHOOL. 


BY 


FRANK  OWEN   PAYNE,   M.Sc. 


1  Flower  in  the  crannied  wall, 
I  pluck  you  out  of  the  crannies;— 
Hold  you  here,  root  and  all,  in  my  hand, 
Little  flower — but  if  I  could  understand 
What  you  are,  root  and  all,  and  all  in  all, 
I  should  know  what  God  and  man  is." 

—  Tennyson. 


NEW   YORK  AND   CHICAGO: 

E.   L.   KELLOGG  &  COMPANY. 


Copyright,  1895,  by 

E.  L.  KELLOGG  &  CO. 

NEW  YORK. 

EDUCATION  DEFT, 


< 


DEDICATION. 


TO 

Eeacfjers, 

WHOSE  EXAMPLE   HAS    INSPIRED   HUNDREDS    OF  PUPILS   LIKE 

• 
MYSELF   TO   BETTER  EFFORTS,    AND    WHOSE   SUPERIOR 

TEACHING  STILL  REMAINS  IN    MEMORY  TO  GUIDE 

ME   OVER    DARK   PLACES   IN  MY  WORK, 

THIS    LITTLE    BOOK 

IS    AFFECTIONATELY 

DEDICATED. 


PREFACE. 


THIS  little  book  is  not  intended  to  be  in  any  sense  a 
treatise  on  nature  study.  It  does  not  pretend  to  be  any- 
thing more  than  a  collection  of  one  hundred  suggestive 
lessons  on  natural  objects,  such  as  have  been  given  in  the 
public  school  at  Chatham,  New  Jersey,  during  the  past  two 
years. 

It  will  be  observed  that  these  lessons  are  not  classified  in 
any  iron-clad  order,  nor  are  they  arranged  with  any  refer- 
ence to  scientific  sequence.  This  apparent  absence  of 
classification  is  introduced  for  a  purpose,  i.  e.,  it  fulfils 
more  truly  the  natural  method  of  acquiring  knowledge. 
The  author  has  found  during  many  years'  experience  that 
when  nature  study  is  fitted  into  rigid  rules  as  to  what,  when, 
how,  etc.,  it  becomes  very  soon  little  else  than  so  many  pages 
of  some  text-book  in  the  teacher's  hands.  In  nature  study 
there  should  be  the  utmost  liberty  of  choice  given  to  the 
teacher  and  pupil,  one  condition  only  being  required, 
namely,  that  a  certain  definite  period  be  given  regularly  to 
the  study  of  some  natural  object  or  phenomenon. 

Comenius  said :  "  Knowledge  of  things  near  at  hand 
should  be  acquired  first,  then  that  of  those  farther  off." 
Taking  this  maxim  as  a  keynote,  the  author  has  endeavored 
to  present  only  such  lessons  as  can  be  given  in  any  school 
outside  of  large  cities  :  Beginning  (i)  with  things  which  can 
be  studied  in  the  school-house  and  grounds,  selected  by 
teacher  and  pupils  ;  proceeding  (2)  to  things  farther  away 
from  the  school. 

illustrations  are,  with  one  or  two  exceptions,  the 

3 


4  Preface. 

work  of  the  writer's  pupils.  It  may  be  added  that  not  more 
than  ten  or  fifteen  minutes  was  given  nature  study  twice  a 
week  in  most  grades  ;  in  one  grade  one  lesson  per  week  of 
thirty  minutes'  duration  was  given. 

Thus  it  is  clear  that  this  subject  need  not  usurp  the  place 
of  the  time-honored  branches.  Rightly  used  it  becomes  a 
basis  for  much  of  the  language-  and  number-work,  and  is 
made  in  every  sense  an  integral  part  of  our  school-work. 
It  may  be  added  that,  in  the  writer's  opinion,  this  work 
should  be  given  regularly  and  systematically. 


INTRODUCTION. 


A  FEW  general  principles  must  be  observed  by  teachers  to 
render  lessons  on  nature  successful. 

1.  It  is  a  cardinal  principle  that  those  things  should  be 
studied  which  aie  neaiest  and  easiest  to  obtain, 

2.  It   is  equally  true  that,  so  far  as  possible,  the  nature 
study  should  fit  the  season      Spring  supplies  an   endless 
wealth  of  growing  seeds,  bursting  buds,  and  opening  flowers. 
Flowers  and   insects    are  very  abundant   in   autumn,  and 
these  are  naturally  the  best  things  to  work  with.     Winter 
offers  some   opposition  to   study  in   the   open   air,  hence 
dependence  must  be  placed  on  materials  that  have  been 
collected  before  the  landscape  is  covered  with  its  mantle  of 
snow  ;  the  school  is  then  left  to  work  on  minerals,  dried 
fruits,  preserved  insects,  the  snow  itself,  and  such  other 
things  as  may  be  at  hand. 

3.  It  is  suggested,  then,   that  during  the  autumn,  while 
the  pupils  are  at  work  upon  things  easily  found,  collections 
of  things  which  will  keep  be  made  for  use  when  the  snow 
prevents  outdoor  expeditions.     Any  ditch  or  gravel-pit   is 
full  of  pebbles  of  various  kinds,  and  often  as  many  as  twenty 
or  thirty  different  kinds  of  stones  may  be  found  in  the  space 
of  a  few  feet.     The  city  teacher  is  no  less  blessed  in  this 
respect  than  the  country  teacher,  for  wherever  a  new  build- 
ing is  in  process  of  erection  the  sand  has  to  be  screened, 
and  the  piles  of  gravel  may  be  laid  under  contribution  for 
stores  of  minerals      A  stock  of  seeds  and  nuts,  grains  and 
dried  seed-pods,  should  always  be  laid  in. 

If  the  following  lessons  do  not  appear  to  possess  any 

5 


6  Introduction. 

logical  connection,  it  is  hoped  that  they  will  be  found  to  pos- 
sess at  least  pedagogical  adaptation. 

The  aims  of  the  writer  are  three  :  i.  Psychological,  i.e., 
training  the  seeing,  judging,  discriminating,  and  classifying 
powers.  2.  Informational,  i.e.,  the  acquisition  of  knowl- 
edge. 3.  To  furnish  a  basis  in  nature  for  work  in  language, 
numbers,  drawing,  etc. 

Each  lesson  gives  the  pupil  increased  power  to  make  ob- 
servations for  himself,  and  his  mind  is  broadened  at  every 
step. 

Suggestions. — i.  The  teacher  should  bring  something 
appropriate  for  a  lesson  into  the  school-room.  The  pupils 
often  bring  in  the  very  thing  desired. 

2.  The  teacher  must  show  interest  in  the   thing.     The 
teacher's  interest  is  sure  to  awaken  that  of  the  pupil.     En- 
thusiasm is  contagious. 

3.  Talk  about  the  object  under  consideration.     Ask  about 
it.     Lead  the  children  to  name  its  properties,  etc.     This 
may  be  done  at  any  time  before,  during,  or  after  school. 
Some  of  the  most  delightful  lessons  I  have  ever  heard  have 
been  given  in  little  talks  at  recess  or  noon. 

4.  Inquire  where  other  things  of  the  same  kind  may  be 
found,  and  ask  pupils  to  get  such  for  you. 

5.  Prepare  yourself  before  giving  the  lesson  ;  you  should 
know  beforehand  just  what  you  desire  pupils  to  discover. 
The  object  must  be  closely  examined 

6.  Never  make  a  nature  lesson  a  set  task.     Make  it  rather 
a  period   of   relaxation   and   recreation   from   the   severer 
lessons. 

7.  Select  the  best  specimen  to  put  away  in  a  school  col- 
lection.    This  starts  a  school  museum,  to  which  many  inter- 
esting curiosities  will  in  time  drift. 

8.  Label  each  specimen  with  the  name  of  the  giver.  This 
will  stimulate  children,  and  so  the  material  for  lessons  will 
become  practically  inexhaustible. 


Introduction.  7 

9.  Ignore  no  object  which  the  pupil  brings.  If  there  be 
more  objects  than  can  be  used  in  lessons,  lay  them  aside 
for  the  present ;  they  will  come  in  play  when  snow  lies  on 
the  ground. 

In  conclusion  I  quote  from  a  paper  by  Geo.  L.  Clapp, 
of  Boston,  entitled  "  Real  and  Sham  Observation  by  Pu- 
pils," printed  in  Education,  January,  1892  : 

"  There  is  no  lack  of  material  in  the  form  of  leaves,  seeds, 
fruits,  vegetables,  stones,  shells,  insects,  etc.,  but  there  is  a 
lack  of  understanding  as  to  how  they  are  to  be  used  in 
ediicating  the  children,  not  simply  in  informing  them.  The 
observation  lesson  is  confounded  with,  or  made  the  occasion 
for,  an  information  lesson,  or  a  language  lesson  :  and  there 
too  frequently  the  work  ends."  After  illustrating  how  this 
may  be  the  writer  adds  :  "  In  the  study  of  nature  the  habit 
of  investigating  must  be  formed.  In  the  case  of  primary 
children  the  work  must  not  be  heavily  saddled  with  lan- 
guage. The  letter  killeth  the  spirit.  A  language  lesson 
may  be  given  on  the  observation  lesson  with  the  greatest 
advantage,  but  at  another  time."  "  The  pupil  must  exam- 
ine his  own  specimens  and  express  in  his  own  words  what 
he  has  discovered  by  his  own  senses.  From  his  own  object 
he  will  get  the  best  description  for  him."  "  A  prime  object 
of  nature  is  to  get  pupils  to  rely  on  their  own  powers,  and  it 
is  the  teachers  duty  to  furnish  proper  opportunities  and 
guidance  when  necessary." 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

PREFACE 3 

INTRODUCTION 5 

CHAPTER  I.— PRELIMINARY  LESSONS 11-13 

CHAPTER  II.— LESSONS  ON  LEAVES,  PLANTS,  AND  FRUITS....  14-42 

A.  Fruits:  The  Apple— The  Orange— True  Berries— Stone  Fruits- 
Nuts— The  Poppy— The  Milkweed— The  Pod— The  Key-fruit— The 

Cone I4-2o 

General  Observation  on  the  Study  of  Fruits  20-24 

B.  Lessons  on  Seeds  :  The  Seed-coat— Advanced  Scheme  for  Seed  Study 
—Growth  from  Seeds— Subsequent  Work 24-31 

C.  Some  Lessons  on  Propagation— On.  Size  and  Comparison 31-35 

D.  Flowers  :  The  Daisy— The  Gentian— Other  Botanical  Lessons 35-42 

CHAPTER  III. — LESSONS  ON  ANIMALS 43-100 

Fishes:  The  Crayfish— The  Turtle 43-45 

Birds  :  The  Canary— The  Chick— The  Robin— The  Duck— The  Hawk 
—Clothing  and  Shelter— A  Feather— Hair,  Wool,  and  Fur— Nests 

of  Birds 45~5i 

The  Hen's  Egg :  Raw— Hard  Boiled— Experiments 52-55 

Insects 5S.56 

Hints  as  to  the  Order  of  Work 56-58 

The  Beetle 58-62 

The  Butterfly 62-66 

A  Talk  About  the  Fly 67,68 

The  Grasshopper 68-70 

A  Talk  about  the  Walking-stick 70-72 

Tke  Cricket 73, 74 

The  Bee  Family 74-76 

Wasps 76,77 

Ants 77 

Talk  about  the  Dragon-fly  78-81 

The  Fish  :  The  Perch— The  Pike— The  Clam-shell— Suggestions  to 

Teacher  for  Further  Lessons 81-88 

Bones  :  Some  Easy  and  Useful  Devices  for  Teaching  Them — Feet  of 
Fowls — Wings — Sheep's  Fore  Leg— Sutures  and  Bones  of  the  Skull 

and  Face— Lessons  for  Higher  Grades 88-100 

CHAPTER  IV. — THE  SCHOOL  MUSEUM.  ...  101-105 


Table  of  Contents. 


PAGB 

CHAPTER  V.  —  RAINY-DAY  LESSONS.  ...   ............  .  ......  106-134 

Lessons  on  Water  .....................................................   106-108 

Lessons  on  Teeth—  Human  Teeth  —  Carnivorous  Teeth  —  Herbivorous 

Teeth—  Fish's  Teeth—  Omnivorous  Teeth—  Gnawing  Teeth  ........  108-1  1  1 

The  Exploration  of  a  Rose  ...........................................   111-113 

A  Study  of  Celery  ............................   .......................   113-118 

A  Series  of  Four  Lessons  to  Illustrate  Fermentation  and  Distillation.  119-124 
Ten  Lessons  on  Common  Objects  :  Charcoal  —  Sulphur  —  Iron  —  Iodine  — 

Lime  —  Glass  —  Soap—  Sugar—  Rubber  ................................   125-130 

Suggestive  Lessons  on  the  Human  Body  :  Parts  of  the  Body—  Joints  — 

The  Flesh  and  Blood  .............................................  131-134 

CHAPTER  VI.  —  LESSONS  IN  THE  SCHOOL-YARD  .............  135-153 

Lessons  on  a  Rainy  Day  ............................................  135-138 

Temperature  ..........................................................  138-140 

The  Leaf-bud  ..............................................  .........  140-143 

Tree-buds  .........  .................................................  143,144 

What  can  be  Found  under  a  Flat  Stone  .............   ..............  144-146 

The  Earthworm  .......  ...........  ----  -...  .........................  146-149 

The  Garden-slug  ..................................................  149-151 

The  Snail  ..............................................................  151,  152 

The  Millipede  and  Centipede  .........................................  152,153 

CHAPTER  VII.  —  WALKS  WITH  THE  CHILDREN  .............  154-185 

A  Walk  in  Early  Spring:  Quartz—  Bark—  Pine-needles  —  Pine-cones..   155-158 
Second  Walk  in  Early  Spring:  Young  Maple—  The  Crayfish—  Frog's 
Eggs  .   .........................................................  158-162 

Third  Walk  :   Trees  .................................................   162-177 

Fourth  Walk  :  Farming  —  A  Brook  ....................................   177-1  79 

Fifth  Walk  :'  A  Hill.  ................................................   180,181 

Sixth  Walk:  The  Ground—  Minerals—  Metals—  Quarrying—  Soil  and 

Subsoil  ................................  .  .......................  181-185 

CHAPTER  VIII.  —  COLLECTIONS  DURING  VACATION  .........  186-192 

CHAPTER  IX.  —  DEVICES  AND   HELPS    IN  NATURE    STUDY. 

BOOKS  OF  REFERENCE  .................................  193-201 

The  Weather-chart  ...............................  ............  .........   193,  194 

The  Weather-pole  .........  .........................................   195-197 

Definition  Cards  ......................................................   197,  198 

Moisture  of  the  Air  ............    .................  .....................   198,  199 

A  List  of  Books  Helpful  in  Nature  Study  .............................  200,  201 


LESSONS  IN  NATURE  STUDY. 


PRELIMINARY  LESSONS. 

THINGS    BROUGHT    IN    BY    PUPILS. 

Introductory. — Let  the  teacher  bring  to  school  a  few  ob- 
jects, picked  up  haphazard — say,  an  ear  of  corn,  a  piece  of 
leather,  a  chicken's  foot.  These  things  are  taken,  exam- 
ined, and  talked  about.  There  should  be  no  attempt  at 
formal  instruction,  but  the  objects  should  be  centres  of  ob- 
servation, and  pupils  should  be  encouraged  to  talk  about 
the  thing  under  discussion.  The  teacher  may  remark  that 
there  is  much  to  learn  from  all  kinds  of  common  things. 
She  may  suggest  that  to-morrow  each  pupil  bring  in  what- 
ever may  be  found,  and  that  the  class  will  then  see  what 
can  be  learned  from  it. 

Let  us  suppose  that  the  following  things  are  brought  in 
and  placed  upon  the  desk  :  • 

1.  A  Pebble — Here  is  a  small  rounded  stone.     Can  you 
tell  me  what  such  a  stone  is  called  ?     Are  pebbles  all  alike  ? 
How  do  they  differ  in  color  and  size  ?     Describe  this  peb- 
ble.    Why  is  it  round  ?     What  made  it  round  ?     Did  you 
ever  see  a  pebble  rolling  along  where  the  water  was  flow- 
ing rapidly?     If    a   stone  were  sharp   and   the  water   set 
it  to  rolling,  what  would   become  of  its  sharp  edges  ?     Do 
stones  wear  away  very  fast  ?     Think  how  very  old  this  little 
pebble  must  be  to  have  become  so  smooth  and  round. 

2.  A  Snail-shell. — Here  is  a  house.     Is   it  not  a  very 

ii 


12  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

pretty  one  ?  Can  you  tell  me  what  lived  in  this  house  ? 
Can  a  snail  creep  out  of  his  shell  ?  His  shell  is  coiled  up. 
How  many  turns  are  there  in  this  snail-shell  ?  Did  you  ever 
see  a  snail  moving  along  with  his  house  on  his  back  ? 

3.  A  Cherry. — Here  are  some  cherries.     Are  they  not 
very  beautiful  ?     Describe  this  cherry.     How  large  is  it  ? 
Is  it  sour  or  sweet,  dry  or  juicy,  hard  or  mellow,  ripe  or  un- 
ripe ?     Mary  may  tell  me   how   many   seeds   a  cherry  has. 
What  do  we  call  cherry-seeds  ?     Can  you  tell  me  some  other 
fruit  which  has  pits  ? 

4.  A  Baking-powder  Can. — What  have  we  here !     What 
is  its  shape  ?     Can   you   tell   me   some   other  object   like 
it   in   shape  ?     The  waste-basket,  a  stovepipe,  a  silk  hat. 
Of  what  is  this  can  made  ?     Is  it  pure  tin  ?     How  do  you 
know  that  the   tin  is  only  a  thin   layer  over  iron  ?     What 
holds  the  tin  together  ?     Did  you  ever  see  a  tinner  solder  ? 
How  does  he  do  it  ? 

5.  Leaves. — Harriet  has  just  brought  in  a  large  number 
of  leaves.     What  kind  of  leaves   are  these  ?     How   many 
parts  has  a  leaf  ?     Can  you  tell  me  a  plant  which  has  larger 
leaves  ?     What  happens  to  leaves  in  autumn  ?     Whence  do 
they  come  in  spring  ?     We  shall  study  more  about  leaves  by 
and  by. 

6.  A  Piece  of  Slag. — Here  is  a  piece  of  slag.     Can  you 
tell  me  what  makes  these  holes  all  through  it  ?     How  does 
this  prove  that  slag  was  once  melted  ? 

7.  A  Bird's  Egg — See  what  a  beautiful  little  egg  !     Can 
you  tell  me  to  what  bird  it  belongs  ?     How  thin  it  is  !     It 
must  have  fallen  from  the  nest  when  the  wind  blew, 

8.  A  Nest.— See  this  nest  !     It  is  made  almost  wholly 
of  horse-hair.     It  is  a  hair-bird's  nest.     Do  you  know  the 
other  name   for  the  hair-bird  ?     Oh,  yes,   it   is  a   chippy. 
Could  you  make  so  fine  a  nest  with  your  fingers  ?     What 
does  the  bird  use  in  making  a  nest  ?     Is  it  not  wonderful 
that  she  can  make  such  a  beautiful  nest  with  only  her  bill 
and  claws  ? 

9.  A  Piece  of  Wood.— What  kind  of  wood  is  this  ?     Find 


Things  Brought  in  by  Pupils.  13 

the  grain.     Is  it  a  hard  or  soft   wood  ?     Smell  it.     Cut  it. 
Some  day  we  will  learn  more  about  wood. 

10.  A  Living  Cricket — Here  we  have  a  cricket.  We 
will  set  this  bottle  on  the  window-sill  and  see  how  the 
cricket  moves  about.  Does  the  cricket  like  light  ?  Oh, 
no,  he  prefers  darkness.  We  may  hear  this  cricket  chirp 
for  us. 

Such  talks  may  be  indulged  in  from  time  to  time  until 
pupils  begin  to  realize  that  nothing  is  unworthy  their  study. 
Ignore  nothing.  Manage  to  find  food  for  talk  in  every- 
thing brought  in. 

Having  gradually  introduced  nature  study  in  this  way, 
suggest  that  the  study  of  things  about  the  school-house  be 
taken  up. 


14  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 


(fcijaptrt  X*L 

LESSONS  ON  LEASES,  PLANTS,  AND  FRUITS. 

A.  FRUITS. 
I.    The  Apple. 

The  apple  is  a  type  of  core  fruits.  Apples  are  so  com- 
mon that  they  are  admirable  as  objects  for  lessons.  An- 
other advantage  in  using  the  apple  is  that  it  is  to  be  had  all 
the  year  round. 

The  First  Lesson. — Attend  first  to  the  external  descrip- 
tion, shape,  size,  color,  texture  of  the  skin,  stem-end,  blow- 
end,  etc. 

In  the  winter  apples  often  feel  quite  greasy,  due  to  the 
presence  of  a  sort  of  oil  or  wax  in  the  rind.  The  stem  has 
a  woody  texture.  The  blow-end  has  the  remains  of  last 
spring's  blossom.  The  various  kinds  of  apples  have  obvi- 
ous differences.  If,  in  getting  your  supply  for  the  lesson, 
you  ask  the  children  to  bring  each  one  an  apple,  there  will 
often  be  found  to  be  a  great  variety  on  hand. 

Second  Lesson. — Half  of  the  pupils  may  cut  their  apples 
from  top  to  bottom  exactly  through  the  centre  of  the  core. 
The  other  half  of  the  class  may  cut  theirs  exactly  through 
the  centre  from  side  to  side.  This  will  present  the  inside 
of  the  apple  in  two  sections.  Now  have  each  pupil  give 
one  half  his  own  apple  to  a  pupil  who  has  cut  his  in  the  op- 
posite direction.  Each  child  will  now  have  two  half-apples, 
one  cut  up  and  down,  and  the  other  from  right  to  left, 
through  the  centre. 

Study  each  section  ;  the  thickness  of  skin,  color,  texture. 


Fruits.     .  4  15 

taste,  and  juiciness  of  the  outer  ring  of  flesh  ;  also  the  same 
features  of  the  meat  around  the  core.  Compare  these  two 
kinds  of  meat.  Study  the  core  itself,  its  seed-cavities  (car- 
pels) with  their  shiny,  horny  walls. 

Examine  the  position  of  the  seed  ;  where  it  is  attached 
to  the  cell,  and  how.  Remove  the  seeds  and  examine  them. 
Find  their  coats  and  seed-leaves.  Find  the  germ.  What 
of  its  position  and  size  ?  Quarter  the  apple  and  remove  the 
core.  See  how  easily  the  core  separates  from  the  outer 
flesh  of  the  apple.  Make  drawings  of  the  apple  in  its  vari- 
ous positions  ;  of  the  sections  ;  of  the  seeds,  etc. 

Describe  fully  all  you  have  done  with  the  apple,  illus- 
trating your  description  with  the  drawings.  Have  the  chil- 
dren talk  with  farmers  about  various  kinds  of  apples  and 
their  culture,  and  bring  into  the  class  the  information.  As- 
sign to  different  pupils  different  topics  relative  to  this  sub- 
ject, and  let  them  state  their  knowledge  completely.  Tell 
them  how  all  our  fine  apples  have  been  produced  from  the 
wild  crab-apple  by  cultivation. 

II.   The  Orange. 

The  orange  is  not  native  air  over  the  country.  As  it  is  so 
common  an  article  of  food,  it  may  be  taken  as  the  subject 
of  a  lesson. 

This  is  a  kind  of  berry.  Operate  on  it  as  you  did  on  the 
apple.  Notice  how  different  it  is,  both  inside  and  out. 
The  stem-end,  with  its  little  disk,  which  comes  out  ;  the 
absence  of  a  blow-end  ;  the  numerous  oil-glands  in  the 


skin 
side 


the  ease  with  which  the  skin  peels  off  ;  its  white  in- 
the  sections  into  which  the  orange  splits  up,  and  the 


position  of  seeds  at  the  centre — all  are  so  different  from  the 
apple  as  to  awaken  interest  when  these  distinctions  are 
brought  out.  It  is  well  to  have  lemons,  limes,  bananas, 
and  grape  fruit  to  present  at  the  same  time  by  way  of  con- 
trast. In  this  connection  it  is  well  to  devote  some  time  to 
talk  on  the  places,  where  these  fruits  grow.  Pictures  of 


1 6  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

orange-groves,  orange-flowers,  etc.,  are  valuable  aids  to  such 
lessons. 

III.    True  Berries. 

The  orange  differs  from  true  berries  in  having  a  thick 
separable  skin  and  few  seeds.  Gooseberries,  cranberries, 
grapes,  currants,  and  tomatoes  are  true  berries,  and,  in  their 
season,  are  excellent  for  study. 

The  cranberry  is  a  most  interesting  fruit  for  winter  study. 
In  this  fruit  each  child  should  have  five  or  six  to  work  on. 
They  should  be  studied  in  the  same  manner  as  were  the 
foregoing,  but  the  seeds  are  too  small  to  claim  more  than  a 
passing  notice  at  present.  Cranberry  culture  is  a  good  sub- 
ject for  a  composition.  In  Maine,  Massachusetts,  New 
Jersey,  Wisconsin,  and  Michigan  the  cranberry  is  a  very  im- 
portant article  of  export,  and  thousands  of  men,  boys,  and 
girls  earn  their  living  by  picking  these  berries  for  shipment. 
Thousands  of  barrels  of  them  are  shipped  every  year  to 
Europe  from  this  country. 

Tomatoes  are  so  large  as  to  be  easily  studied  as  typical 
berries,  />.,  fleshy  fruit  having  seeds  scattered  through  them. 

IV.  Stone  Fruits. 

Peaches,  cherries,  plums,  and  prunes,  in  their  season,  are 
best,  but  dried  prunes  and  apricots  are  better  than  none. 
The  country  teacher  may  have  recourse  to  the  so-called 
"  berries  "  on  the  dogwood  in  the  late  fall.  It  is  better  to 
study  everything  in  its  season.  There  is  enough  in  this 
season  without  resorting  to  dried  fruits  for  material.  If 
you  desire  to  give  a  course  of  nature  studies  on  fruits,  save 
stone  fruits  till  spring,  when  the  first  cherries  are  brought 
in  to  the  teacher. 

These  cannot  be  cut  through.  The  stone  resists  the 
knife,  but  the  flesh  can  be  carefully  cut  away  and  examined, 
as  was  done  before.  The  seed  in  this  case  should  be  ex- 


Fruits.  1 7 

amined  with  care  ;  its  outside  appearance  noted — whether 
wrinkled,  as  in  the  peach,  or  smooth,  as  in  the  cherry. 

Crack  the  pit  and  examine  the  seed  inside.  Some 
stone-fruit  seeds  have  a  third  skin  around  them. 

V.  Nuts. 

Here  are  things  which  are  always  brought  to  the  school. 
The  hickory-fruit  with  its  thick,  soft,  woody  outside  split- 
ting away  from  the  white-shelled  nut  within;  the  butternut 
with  its  thin  brown  papery  covering  and  its  very  rough  shell; 
the  triangular  beechnut  and  the  spherical  hazel  in  their 
flower-like  burs;  the  horse-chestnut  with  its  bur  and  large 
scar — are  all  excellent  objects  for  winter  study. 

It  is  well  to  study  the  interior  not  merely  by  cracking  the 
nuts,  but  also  by  sawing  through  with  a  butcher's  saw.  This 
will  show  beautifully  how  intricate  is  the  interior  of  some 
nutshells. 

City  teachers  can  study  English  walnuts,  cocoanuts, 
pecans,  filberts,  Brazil-nuts,  etc.,  in  a  similar  manner. 

VI.    The  Poppy  (a  dry  fruit]. 

This  is  always  a  most  delightful  fruit  to  observe.  Its 
elegant  shape  is  a  good  object  to  draw.  The  cap  on  the 
top  is  pretty,  and  the  row  of  openings  around  it  like  a  row 
of  windows  up  under  the  eaves  of  a  circular  tower  are  curi- 
ous. The  top  should  be  removed  carefully,  and  then  is 
disclosed  a  series  of  partitions  radiating  from  the  centre. 

Here  are  myriads  of  little  black  or  dark-brown  seeds. 
These  seeds  are  perfect  spheres.  Here  is  a  good  oppor- 
tunity to  teach  plan  in  nature.  The  little  windows  remain 
shut  until  the  seeds  are  ripe.  Then  the  windows  open,  and 
out  come  the  seeds.  Taste  of  the  seeds.  Are  they  good  ? 
Tell  the  children  of  the  milky  juice  of  the  poppy-plant. 
Tell  them  about  the  opium  which  is  made  from  the  juice; 
of  its  culture  in  the  far  East,  and  of  the  danger  of  using  any- 
thing which  contains  opium. 


1 8  Lessons  in  'Nature  Study. 

VII.   The  Milkweed. 

Here  is  another  dry  fruit.  Its  shape,  warty  surface, 
jointed  stem,  should  be  first  observed.  Then  its  shining  in- 
terior, its  great  mass  of  flat  brown  seeds  with  their  silky  ap- 
pendage, should  be  examined  and  discussed.  Why  does 
nature  want  the  seeds  to  fly  away  ?  What  would  happen 
were  the  seeds  all  to  fall  down  upon  the  ground  in  one 
place  ?  Can  you  pull  off  the  silk  from  the  seeds  ?  Does  it 
come  off  easily? 

Pull  some  silk.  Is  it  strong  ?  Would  it  weave  into  cloth 
well  ?  Is  it  brittle  or  not  ?  Examine  some  silk  with  a 
glass. 

VIII.    The  Pod. 

For  this  lesson  it  is  well  to  have  as  many  kinds  of  pods 
(legumes)  as  possible.  Beans,  pease,  locust,  honey-locust, 
peanut,  are  commonest.  Some  of  these  can  be  studied 
fresh  from  the  gardens,  while  others  hang  on  the  trees  all 
winter,  and  are  available  at  any  time. 

These  are  also  easily  drawn  and  described.  The  curious 
way  in  which  seeds  are  attached  to  one  side  by  means  of 
short  curved  stems  (funicles)  and  the  little  hollows  where 
the  seeds  nestle  down  closely  are  all  worthy  of  note.  The 
use  of  some  of  these  for  food  will  be  worth  mention.  An- 
other thing  not  to  be  overlooked  is  the  fact  that  the  halves 
of  almost  all  pods  (legumes)  tend  to  split  apart  along  a 
definite  line.  This  is  brought  out  in  shelling  peas,  and  also 
in  cracking  peanuts  in  the  hand.  The  two  halves  are  called 
valves. 

IX.   The  Key-fruit, 

So  much  has  been  written  on  the  maple  that  it  is 
hardly  necessary  to  outline  a  lesson  on  this  fruit,  but  the 
keys  of  the  elm,  box-elders,  ash,  and  ailanthus  are  far  less 
known,  and  so  they  may  occupy  a  few  words  here.  It  is 
well  to  select  one  of  these  fruits,  and  give  a  rather  full 


Fruits.  19 

treatment  of  it  first.  Then  take  up  the  others,  bringing  out 
first  similarities,  later  differences.  The  maple-seed  is  at 
the  end  of  the  key.  This  puts  the  wing  on  one  side.  The 
maple-keys  are  always  in  pairs.  Stand  on  a  chair  and  drop 
one.  See  it  whirl  around  ?  Why  ?  This  retards  its  falling, 
so  that  any  wind  may  carry  it  farther,  because  it  remains  in 
the  air  longer.  Again,  stand  on  a  chair  and  drop  a  maple- 
key  and  a  bean.  Which  strikes  the  floor  first  ?  Note  how 
the  ailanthus  seed  is  near  the  middle  of  the  wing.  See  how 
the  wing  is  twisted.  Drop  this,  and  see  how  this  twisting 
makes  the  seed  to  loiter  on  the  downward  journey.  Per- 
form same  experiments  with  other  kinds  of  keys.  Let  each 
child  handle  and  draw  each  kind.  What  a  delicate  mem- 
branous wing  the  elm  has.  How  stiff  is  the  wing  of  the 
ash.  Are  all  maple-keys  alike  ?  Do  all  fall  at  the  same 
time  ?  How  many  seeds  are  in  each  key-fruit  ?  Other  dif- 
ferences will  suggest  other  questions. 

X.   The  Cone. 

Cones  are  complicated,  and  a  great  deal  of  study  may  be 
put  upon  them.  It  is  only  the  most  peculiar  features  which 
need  be  taken  up  with  primary  or  ungraded  pupils.  Here 
we  have  a  compound  fruit,  wholly  unlike  any  of  the  fore- 
going. Call  attention  to  the  fact  that  it  is  really  a  branch 
with  many  closely  compact  leaves  upon  it.  Cut  the  cone 
from  top  to  bottom  through  the  axis.  Examine  the  at- 
attachment  of  these  wooden  leaves.  Observe  also  that 
these  leaves  are  put  on  in  a  spiral  arrangement.  Examine 
the  leaves.  Are  they  thick  or  thin  ?  Hard  or  soft  ? 
Smooth  or  rough?  Compare  the  edge  with  .the  other 
parts  of  the  cone-scales  in  thickness.  Are  they  armed 
with  a  spine  or  not  ?  Does  the  spine  break  off  easily, 
or  is  it  closely  united  to  the  leaf?  Is  there  resin  on 
the  cone  ?  Break  off  a  leaf.  Note  the  two  hollows  on  its 
upper  surface.  What  are  these  for?  Can  you  find  any 
seeds  in  the  cone  ?  See  how  they  lie  in  the  hollows.  Note 


20  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

the  wings  on  these  seeds.  Can  the  wing  be  separated  from 
the  seed  ?  Here  we  have  a  seed  which  is  naked  in  the  hol- 
lows on  the  upper  side  of  a  cone-leaf  (scale).  When  ripe  it 
loosens,  drops  out,  flies  away. 

Dip  a  cone  in  water.  What  effect  ?  Examine  cones  of 
different  trees  ;  also  young  and  old  cones  from  the  same 
tree.  When  young,  they  remain  closed  up  tight.  A  short 
branch  of  a  pine-tree  will  often  show  as  many  as  four  or 
five  different  crops  of  cones.  Such  a  branch,  where  possi- 
sible,  should  be  brought  into  the  class. 

Cones  differ  greatly  in  size,  shape,  and  the  form,  etc.,  of 
their  scales  (leaves).  The  author's  public  school  has  made 
a  collection  of  twelve  different  kinds  of  cones. 


GENERAL    OBSERVATION   ON   THE    STUDY   OF 
FRUITS. 

As  fast  as  dry  fruits  are  studied  they  should  be  mounted 
upon  a  large  stiff  card.  This  is  useful  as  a  chart.  It  also 
helps  to  ornament  the  room.  By  being  before  the  children's 
eyes  they  become  more  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  various 
forms.  The  teacher  should  always  be  on  the  outlook  for 
dry  fruits.  In  the  fall  a  walk  in  the  woods  is  sure  to  be 
productive  of  a  quantity  of  dry  pods  of  various  things. 
These,  put  away,  can  be  brought  out  when  snow  lies  upon 
the  ground.  Children,  once  started  collecting,  will  keep 
the  class-room  abundantly  supplied. 

An  example  is  given  of  pupil's  descriptive  papers.  When 
a  leaf,  flower,  or  seed  has  been  thoroughly  studied,  the 
pupil  should  place  his  knowledge  on  paper. 

The  Apple. 

(Description    by    Doretta   N.    Wagner,   age    twelve.      Drawing   by 
Charles  Miller.) 

The  apple  is  a  delicious  fruit,  and  I  do  not  wonder  that 
Adam  and  Eve  were  tempted.  The  apple  I  have  is  about  the 
size  of  an  orange  or  breadfruit.  It  is  something  the  shape  of 


General  Observations  on  the  Study  of  Fruits.        2 1 

a  tomato.     Its  skin  is  smooth  and  tough.     The  one  I  have  is  of 
a  beautiful  color,  being  shaded  with  pink,  green,  yellow,  and 


FIG.  i.  — APPLE  AND  SECTIONS. 


brown.     Its  stem  is  an   inch  in  length.     It  is  made  of  woody 
fibres,  and  is  very  strong,  so  as  to  hold  the  weight  of  the  apple. 


22 


Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 


The  little  dried-up  blossom  at  the  bottom  consists  of  five 
parts.  It  is  filled  with  little  stamens,  which  look  like  little 
dark-brown  threads. 

Its  flesh  is  cream -color.  Its  taste  is  tart,  and  my  apple  is 
very  juicy.  Some  apples  are  mealy.  When  cut  across,  its  core 
looks  like  a  starflower.  In  each  petal  there  is  a  seed.  When 
cut  lengthways  toward  the  centre,  it  is  tough.  In  the  centre 
these  are  covered  with  a  tough  substance  that  looks  like  fish- 
scales.  It  is  enclosed  by  a  heart-shaped  mark. 

The  seed  is  pear-shaped.  Its  outside  skin  is  dark  brown  and 
shiny.  The  inside  skin  is  light  brown  and  is  tough.  Inside 
this  skin  it  is  perfectly  white.  Inside  of  that  is  a  germ.  There 
are  many  kinds  of  apples.  The  Baldwin  is  a  sour  apple  and 
keeps  well  for  winter.  The  russet  is  also  a  sour  apple,  but  it  is 
of  another  color.  The  Baldwin  is  dark  red  ;  the  russet  is 
brown.  The  crab-apple  is  a  bitter  apple,  used  only  for  pre- 
serves and  jelly.  The  bellflower,  the  Canfield  and  Greening 
are  other  apples.  They  are  also  very  useful  for  cooking,  raw 
dried,  cider,  and  pies. 

The  Orange. 

(Description  by  Ray  Atteridge.     Drawing  by  Chester  Bellows.) 

The  shape  of  the  orange  is  that  of  an  oblate  spheroid.  It  is 
about  the  size  of  a  baseball.  The  orange  has  a  different  smell 
from  other  fruits.  The  orange-skin  is  thick.  It  looks  porous. 
The  outside  is  the  part  that  has  the  flavor.  The  orange-skin  is 
formed  of  two  parts — the  inside  is  white,  the  outside  is  an 


FIG.  2. — SECTIONS  OF  ORANGE. 


orange  color.  The  part  of  the  orange  which  is  good  for  food  is 
the  juicy  part.  When  the  orange  is  cut  across,  there  are  seg- 
ments, and  each  little  segment  is  protected  from  the  other  by  a 
thin  skin. 

The  flesh  of  the  orange  is  mostly  a  yellowish  juice.     It  looks 
like  the  muscles  of  the  arm  or  the  leg.    The  seeds  are  near  the 


General  Observations  on  the  Study  of  Fruits.        23 

centre.  They  point  toward  the  core.  The  seed  has  two  skins. 
One  end  of  the  seed  is  sharp  and  the  other  is  blunt.  The  outer 
skin  is  white  and  tough,  and  does  not  fit  close  to  the  seed.  The 
inside  skin  is  a  brownish  color  and  slippery.  It  fits  close  to 
the  seed.  It  is  the  thinner  of  the  two.  The  skin  is  spongy. 
It  is  larger  than  that  of  an  apple-seed.  The  germ  is  at  the 
sharp  end  of  the  seed.  The  seed  is  like  a  little  bean.  There 
are  two  parts  to  it.  When  under  the  glass,  it  looks  like  the 
heart  of  a  cabbage. 

Oranges  grow  in  warm  climates.  Some  of  the  places  are 
Florida,  California,  and  West  Indies.  The  Florida  oranges  are 
the  best,  but  this  year  the  oranges  of  Florida  are  no  good,  for 
they  are  all  frozen.  They  use  the  orange  for  flavoring  different 
things.  The  orange  is  nice  to  eat  in  the  hand  or  on  the  table. 
We  like  oranges  the  best  in  the  winter-time.  .They  grow  on  a 
tree,  not  on  a  bush. 

The  Cranberry. 

(Description  and  drawing  by  Rollo  S.  Smith.) 

The  cranberry  grows  in  New  Jersey,  Delaware,  and  Massa- 
chusetts. It  is  grown  in  marshy  land,  and  a  river  or  a  brook  is 
always  found  near,  so  they  can  flood  it  to  keep  the  plants  from 
getting  frost-bitten.  The  cranberry  is  something  the  shape  of 
an  egg,  and  is  about  the  size  of  a  sparrow's  egg.  The  color  of 
the  skin  is  of  a  light  red  at  the  blossom-end,  but  it  gradually 
grows  darker  toward  the  stem- end.  Here  it  is  a  very  dark 


FIG.  3. — CRANBERRY  AND  SECTIONS. 

red.  The  skin  is  very  smooth,  and  does  not  separate  from  the 
fruit  very  easily.  When  cooked  it  separates  very  easily. 

The  flesh  is  of  a  cream-white  color.  The  texture  of  the 
flesh  is  not  very  tough,  and  it  is  full  of  little  pores.  The  flesh 
tastes  very  sour,  and  has  an  insipid  taste  beside.  The  cross- 
section  looks  like  a  full  moon  and  a  four-leaf  clover  in  the 
middle  of  it. 

Each  cavity  has  four  little  seeds  in  it.  There  are  four  of  these 
cavities,  which  make  the  leaflets  of  the  four-leaf  clover.  The 
vertical  section  is  blong,  and  each  section  contains  two 
cavities,  which  are  full  of  seeds  that  point  to  the  stem-end. 
There  is  a  very  tough  kind  of  cord,  that  goes  from  end  to  end, 
that  separates  the  two  cavities.  This  cord  is  of  a  red  color. 
The  seeds  are  all  attached  to  the  cord  that  passes  through  the 
middle  of  the  vertical  section.  The  big  ends  of  the  seeds  are 


24  Lessons  in  Nature 

where  they  are  attached.  The  seeds,  when  under  the  magnify- 
ing glass,  look  like  bitter-sweet  berries,  and  are  about  the 
shape  of  an  orange-seed.  The  seeds  are  fastened  together  by 
a  kind  of  red  substance  that  looks  like  red  sticky  jelly. 

All  the  children  whose  work  is  here  shown  were  pupils 
in  the  Chatham  (N.  J.)  public  school. 


B.  LESSONS  ON  SEEDS. 
I.    The  Seed-coat. 

Preparation.— The  teacher  should  first  collect  several 
kinds  of  seeds.  Large  ones  are  best,  as  beans,  pease,  squash, 
watermelon,  pumpkin,  hickory-nuts,  chestnuts,  walnuts, 
peach-pits,  etc.,  etc.  Distribute  two  or  three  beans  to  each 
pupil,  having  soaked  them  overnight  to  soften  them.  Give 
each  child  a  pin  with  which  to  dissect  his  bean. 

The  Lesson. — Children,  we  will  learn  something  about 
this  seed.  What  is  it  ?  Its  shape  ?  Size  ?  Color  ?  Scar 
where  it  was  fastened  to  pod.  Is  it  rough  or  smooth  ? 
Hard  or  soft  ?  Draw  its  shape  on  your  slates.  Take  a 
pin  and  stick  it  just  under  the  skin  of  the  bean,  so  as  not  to 
injure  the  bean  inside.  Be  careful  not  to  hurt  the  bean, 
for  there  is  a  little  baby  bean-plant  inside.  The  little  bean- 
plant  is  asleep.  Do  not  stick  the  pin  into  the  baby.  Peel 
off  the  skin.  We  will  call  it  the  coat  for  the  baby  inside. 
See  if  this  bean  has  more  than  one  coat.  How  does  the 
"overcoat"  differ  from  the  "undercoat"?  How  many 
parts  has  the  bean  ?  Pick  them  apart  and  see  if  you  can 
find  the  baby. 

Other  Seeds. 

Do  the  same  with  pease,  squash,  melon,  etc.,  until  you 
bring  out  the  fact  that  the  seeds  of  these  plants  have  two 
coats. 

Call  these  an  overcoat  (testa)  and  an  undercoat  (tegmen). 
If  c  seed  proves  to  have  a  third  coat,  tell  them  that 


Lessons  on  Seeds. 


some  seeds  have  more  than  two  coats,  but  that  most  seeds 
have  two  only.  Thus  the  following  table  can  be  made 
by  the  pupils  : 

SEELS. 


Name. 

Scar. 

Outer  Coat. 

Inner  Coat. 

Bean. 

small  on  side 
near  end. 

smooth,  white, 
tough. 

thin,  delicate, 
tender. 

Pea. 

small  round  side. 

green,  smooth, 
tough. 

thin,  veiny, 
tender. 

Peach. 

rough,  at  the  end. 

hard,  a  shell, 
wrinkled. 

thin,  brown, 
wrinkled. 

Apple. 

at  end,  small. 

smooth,  brown. 

thin. 

Orange. 

at  the  end,  rather 
large. 

roughish,   white, 
tough. 

cream,  tender. 

Horse-chestnut. 

very  large, 
gray. 

brown,    smooth, 
horny. 

brown,  very  thin, 
close  to  seed. 

II.  Advanced  Scheme  for  Seed  Study. 


Name. 

Position. 

Testa. 

Tegumen- 

Embryo. 

Cotyledons. 

Radicle. 

Maize. 

anatro  - 
pal. 

tough, 
flexible, 
yellow. 

thin, 

white, 
delicate. 

monoco- 
tyledon- 
ous,  white. 

one. 

white. 

Pumpkin. 

anatro- 
pal. 

hard, 
yellowish, 
tough. 

thin, 
white. 

dicotyle- 
donous. 

fleshy, 
starchy. 

small. 

Orange. 

anatro- 
pal. 

tough, 
thick. 

thin, 
brown, 
tough. 

polycoty- 
ledonous. 

7,  various 
in  shape. 

small, 
2-parted. 

Later  such   seeds  as  sunflower,  thistle,  milkweed,  maple, 
acorn,  and  ailanthus  may  be  studied. 


26  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

Encourage  the  children  to  collect  small  boxes  full  of 
seeds.  I  have  seen  small  boxes,  2X2X1  inch,  used,  and 
very  interesting  collection  of  seeds  thus  formed.  Late  in 
the  fall,  when  the  seed  collection  is  complete,  give  a  lan- 
guage lesson  as  follows  :  Let  the  class  write  about  seeds, 
answering  these  questions  based  on  their  observations  : 

How  does  a  peach-pit  differ  from  a  plum-pit  ?  Which  is 
larger,  a  plum-  or  cherry-pit  ?  Name  seeds  that  have  wings, 
down,  silk.  Name  a  seed  with  a  very  large  scar.  Other 
questions  will  suggest  themselves. 

The  seeds  collected  may  often  be  of  use  for  observation 
lessons  on  growth  by  sowing  on  wet  cotton  in  early  spring. 
I  have  seen  children  work  for  weeks  on  seeds,  deeply  inter- 
ested in  finding  these  facts,  and  unconsciously  developing 
their  senses  to  an  extent  that  is  truly  wonderful. 

III.   Growth  from  Seeds. 

Procure  some  lima  beans  ;  have  enough  to  supply  each 
child.  Soak  them  overnight.  Then  plant  them  on  a  mat 
of  wet  cotton.  Cover  lightly  with  another  wet  mat  and 
place  in  a  tumbler  on  a  sunny  window-sill. 

In  a  day  or  two  employ  them  in  a  lesson.  Tell  the  chil- 
dren that  there  is  a  little  door  in  the  seed-coat.  Tell  them 
that  if  they  watch  for  it  they  will  soon  see  the  baby  put  his 
little  foot  out  of  the  door. 

This  will  create  enthusiasm,  and  observations  will  be 
made  almost  every  hour  of  the  day.  In  a  short  time  their 
watching  will  be  rewarded,  and  then  each  stage  of  develop- 
ment will  be  observed  and  recorded.  Let  drawings  be 
made  every  third  day.  Other  seeds  sown  in  like  manner 
always  awaken  great  interest  among  the  children.  Mixed 
bird-seed  gives  most  interesting  results.  Older  pupils  may 
examine  root-fibres,  etc.,  with  a  small  magnifying  glass  and 
see  the  root-hairs. 

The  following  is  an  outline  of  observations  on  the  bean, 
together  with  language  and  number  lessons  based  upon 


Lessons  on  Seeds.  27 

them.  They  are  submitted  as  samples  of  first-year  pupils' 
work,  during  February  and  March,  1894,  in  Chatham  (N.  J.) 
public  school,  lowest  primary  classes,  Miss  M.  Alice  Gulick, 
teacher.  The  drawings  are  made  by  the  pupils;  not  one  has 
been  doctored.  They  have  been  copied  by  tracing,  and  then 


FIG.  4. 

inked  line  for  line.     The  children  range  from  six  to  eight 
years  of  age.     Lessons  are  given  in  the  following  order : 

I.  The  Scar  (hilum). — This  is  where  the  seed  grew  to  the 
pod.  The  scar  is  interesting  to  observe.  It  varies  so  in 
size.  The  children  are  given  many  kinds  of  seeds  just 
to  observe  the  scars.  Beans,  pease,  almonds,  chestnuts, 


28  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

horse-chestnuts,   corn,  and    other   large    seeds    show  great 
diversity  in  size,  shape,  and  position  of  the  scar. 

II.  The  Little  Gate.— Tell  the  children  that  inside  the 
seed  is  a  little  baby  plant,  and  that  there  is  a  little  gate  or 
door  where  it  can  come  out  when  it  gets  big  enough. 


TSL. 


FIG. \a. 

Then  the  little  opening  (micropyle)  just  below  the  scar 
on  the  bean  is  pointed  out,  and  the  children  are  told  to  find 
the  little  gate  on  other  seeds.  This  will  be  hard  to  do 
in  some  seeds,  for  the  little  gate  is  sometimes  merely  a 
pore  that  can  only  be  found  with  a  needle-point.  It  is 
worth  the  search,  however,  for  it  will  bring  out  the  fact  that 


Lessons  on  Seeds.  29 

the  little  gate  and  the  scar  occupy  very  different  positions 
on  the  seeds  of  different  kinds  of  plants. 

III.  The  Overcoat — Tell  the  pupils  that  the  little  baby 
plant  (germ)  must  have  a  coat  to  keep  it  warm.     Soak  the 
seeds  and  carefully  cut  away  the  outer  seed -coat  (overcoat). 
The  children  should  do  the  same  with  a  pin,     Get  them  to 
describe  the  outer  coat  (testa).     Such  words  as  smooth, 
rough,  thin,  thick,  white,  brown,  wrinkled,  ridged,  etc.,  will 
come  up  and  furnish  excellent  language  drill. 

IV.  But  tell  them  that  kind  Mother  Nature  gave  the  little 
baby  plant  two  coats,  and  ask  them  to  find  the  undercoat. 
Tell  them  that  the  baby  is  sleeping  and  they  must  be  care- 
ful so  as  not  to  wake  it  up.     They  will  thus  find  the  inner 
coat  (tegmen)  and  then  the  baby  itself  is  exposed. 

V.  The  Baby. — Direct  the  pupils  to  separate  the  seed- 
leaves  and  see  the  "ittle  baby  lying  there  between,     i.  Point 
out  the  pointed  portion  ;  it  is  the  baby's  foot  (radicle).      2. 
Point   out   the   two   little  leaves  (plumule).     This  is    the 
baby's  head.     Then  taking  some  fresh  seeds,  plant  them  on 
wet  cotton  in  tumblers  so  that  the  growth  may  be  observed. 
No  drawings  of  the  inside  were  made  because  of  its  small 
size,  but  the  children  were  encouraged  to  tell  all  they  knew 
of  the  coats  and  other  parts  of  the  seed. 

VI.  Growth. — Figures    i   and   2   of   Fig.  4  were  traced 
around,  and  special  attention  was  called  to  the  little  gate, 
so  that  the  children  became  eager  to  watch  the  little  baby 
creep  out  through  the  gate.     Drawings  were   made  every 
two  or  three  days.     Errors  were  carefully  noted,  as,  for  ex- 
ample, when  a  little  six-year-old  drew  the  roots  in  figure  6, 
making  them  turn  upward,  and  when  an  eight-year-old  put 
parallel  veins  on  cut  9. 

IV.   Subsequent  Work. 

Corn  was  planted  Jan.  28,  and  observations  lasted  through 
the  first  week  of  March.  Then  pease  were  planted,  and  by 
the  time  they  had  been  studied  young  maples,  acorns,  horse- 


3°  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

chestnuts,  etc.,  were  sprouting  outside,  and  from  their  study 
a  valuable  fund  of  knowledge,  an  increased  power  of  observa- 
tion, and  a  more  hearty  appreciation  of  nature's  plan  and 
God's  providence  were  awakened  in  those  children's  minds. 

The  following  sentences  are  culled  here  and  there  from 
the  work  of  some  forty  children  ranging  from  six  to  eight 
years  of  age: 

"See  the  bean  in  the  glass.  The  seeds  are  in  the 
water.  The  bean  is  wet  in  the  glass.  The  bean  was 
planted  on  wet  cotton  in  the  glass.  There  are  roots  in  the 
glass.  The  leaves  come  from  the  stem.  The  little  baby 
plant  in  the  seed  is  called  a  germ.  We  planted  the  seed  on 
wet  cotton.  There  are  roots  on  the  bean  and  the  com  and 
the  pea.  The  stem  grows  up  from  the  seed.  We  can  plant 
seed  in  the  ground.  The  seed  has  two  skins.  We  like  to 
eat  beans  when  they  are  cooked.  The  rootlets  run  from 
the  large  root.  The  roots  are  white.  Can  you  see  the 
stem  of  the  pea  ?  " 

The  foregoing  will  show  about  what  to  expect.  The 
teacher  should  always  say  :  "  Now,  children,  look  at  your 
sentences  and  see  if  they  are  begun  correctly."  This  fixes 
capitalization.  In  like  manner  attend  to  punctuation.  Ac- 
cept no  slovenly  work.  This  fixes  habits  of  neatness  and 
helps  the  penmanship.  Drawing  of  everything  studied  is 
advisable,  since  it  is  one  of  the  best  means  of  delineation. 

A  few  problems  in  number  are  added  : 

1.  There  are  5  corn-sprouts  in  one  glass  and  3  in  another; 
how  many  in  both  ? 

2.  I  had  4  peas  in  one  glass;  how  many  in  three  such 
glasses  ? 

3.  The  bean-plant  has  3  leaflets  on  each  leaf,  and  a  bean- 
plant  has  6  leaves ;  how  many  leaflets  on  the  plant  ? 

Have  pupils  write  the  story  of  a  seed.  How  it  grew  in  a 
fruit  or  pod ;  how  it  fell  upon  the  ground ;  how  the  water 
and  light  and  heat  of  the  sun  wakened  it  up  ;  and  how  it 
grew  to  be  a  fine  plant.  This  exercise  may  be  varied  by 
having  the  seed  tell  its  own  story. 


Some  Lessons  on  Propagation.  31 

Exercises  of  this  kind  must  be  copied  neatly  and  laid 
away  for  future  use  as  supplementary  reading.  Material  of 
this  character  is  far  superior  to  a  great  deal  which  we  find 
in  so-called  supplementary  readers  ;  it  is  about  things  the 
pupil  has  seen. 


C.  SOME  LESSONS  ON  PROPAGATION. 

I.  Here  is  a  branch  cut  from  an  ivy-plant.     Let  us  exam- 
ine it  closely.     Do  you  see  any  roots  upon  it  ?    Let  us  place 
the  lower  end  of  the  stem  into  a  bottle  of  water.     We  will 
set  it  in  the  north  window  and  see  it  put  forth  roots.     Here 
is  a  piece  of  nasturtium,  and  also  a  piece  of  oleander.     We 
will  also  put  them  into  bottles  of  water  and  see  their  roots 
form. 

Observe  them  each  day,  and  by  and  by  the  tender,  white, 
threadlike  roots  will  be  seen  to  appear.  The  nasturtium 
will  probably  be  the  first  to  throw  out  roots,  then  the  ivy, 
and  last  the  oleander.  When  the  roots  appear,  examine 
under  a  magnifying  glass  and  discover  the  little  root-hairs 
by  which  the  plant  absorbs  moisture  and  nutriment  from 
the  soil. 

Before  the  roots  appear  examine  from  time  to  time  to 
see  the  callus  or  scar  where  the  roots  first  appear.  This 
callus  comes  at  the  end  of  the  slip  where  it  was  cut  off, 
and  when  it  comes  you  may  be  very  sure  that  roots  will 
speedily  follow.  When  the  roots  have  made  their  appear- 
ance, and  when  you  have  given  them  all  the  study  you  can, 
put  the  new  plants  in  good  earth  and  set  in  a  sunny  window. 
The  foregoing  illustrates  one  important  way  of  propagating 
plants. 

II.  Here  is  a  piece  of  geranium  stem.     Let  us  plant  it 
in  the  soil.     First  we  will  cut  off  the  large  leaves  and  we 
will  cut  the  stem  off  smooth  with  a  sharp  knife.     Look  at  it 
closely  and  see  how  fresh  and  green  the  stem  looks  where  I 
have  cut  it. 


32  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

We  will  take  this  clean  sharp  sand  and  sift  it  to  get  out 
all  the  pebbles.  Now  we  will  put  it  in  this  pot  and  make  it 
damp.  Let  us  push  this  pencil  down  into  the  soft  damp 
sand  and  so  make  a  hole.  Now  put  in  your  geranium  slip 
and  crowd  the  sand  up  around  it.  Where  shall  we  put  it? 
Why  put  it  in  a  north  window?  Why  not  let  it  have  sun- 
light from  the  first  ?  When  it  has  been  planted  for  a  week, 
carefully  remove  it  by  tipping  the  pot  upside  down  and  ex- 
amine the  geranium  stem  for  a  callus.  Signs  of  healing 
over  will  probablybe  observed,  and  a  roughish  ridge  will  be 
seen  on  the  edge  where  bark  and  wood  join.  This  is  a  cal- 
lus. If  the  stem  has  begun  to  rot,  it  is  because  the  sand 
has  been  kept  too  wet.  The  sand  should  be  damp,  not  wet. 
If  no  callus  has  appeared  yet,  carefully  bury  again  and 
wait  another  week.  The  callus  and  the  roots  are  bound 
soon  to  appear,  and  they  may  be  examined  as  with  nastur- 
tium, ivy,  and  oleander. 

III.  Procure  a  plant  of  periwinkle  (myrtle)  having  rather 
long  branches.     Plant  it  in  a  pot,  and  fix  another  pot  full 
of  good  earth,  but  having  no  plant  in  it.     Place  the  pot  of 
earth  beside  the  one  containing  the  periwinkle  and  lay  one 
of  the  long  branches  across  the  pot  of  earth.     Place  a  stone 
upon  the  branch,  and  water  the  pot  of  earth  whenever  you 
water  the  periwinkle  vine.     Now  and  then  gently  lift  the 
stone  and  observe  the  vine.     After  a  time  roots  will  appear 
and  a  new  plant  will  thus  be  formed.     The  branch  may  be 
severed  after  a  while  and  the  new  plant  will  then  carry  on  a 
separate   existence.     In  the  above  experiment  have  pupils 
make  careful  note  of  when  the  stone  is  first  placed  and  how 
long  it  takes  to  root  the  branch. 

IV.  Make  the  foregoing  experiment  with  another  branch, 
only  before  placing  the  stone  cut  off  a  small  slice  of  the 
bark  from  the  periwinkle  vine  on  the  upper  side  only.     Do 
not  take  off  the  bark  all  around;  that  would  cause  the 
death  of  the  branch.     It  will  be  found  that  roots  will  start 
much  sooner  around  the  wound  than  they  will  on  a  stem 
which  has  not  been  so  treated.     These  experiments  will 


On  Si%e  and  Comparison.  33 

bring  out  much  valuable  information  regarding  how  nature 
tries  to  repair  any  injury;  how  new  plants  may  be  formed 
from  old  ones,  etc. 

In  all  such  work  a  diary  should  be  kept  to  record  obser- 
vations. 


ON  SIZE  AND  COMPARISON.     MEASUREMENTS. 

Many  teachers  give  their  pupils  some  drill  on  form 
and  size.  Some  teach  measurements.  One  of  the  earliest 
faculties  to  develop  is  comparison,  and  the  following  lesson 
is  designed  to  furnish  drill  in  comparison  and  measure- 
ments. Each  child  has  a  ruler. 

THE  LESSON. 

Who  can  tell  me  what  kind  of  tree  this  is  ?  Yes,  it  is  an 
oak-tree.  Did  you  ever  notice  how  large  some  oak-leaves 
are  ?  Let  us  see  who  can  find  the  largest  oak-leaf.  Here 
is  a  very  small  one.  See  who  can  find  the  smallest  also. 

Get  the  biggest  and  the  littlest  you  can  find,  and  then 
we  will  all  sit  down  here  and  measure  them. 

Mary,  how  long  is  your  leaf  ?  Who  has  a  longer  one  ? 
Measure  from  the  top  to  the  end  of  the  stem  of  the  leaf. 
Does  the  stem  of  the  leaf  belong  to  it  ?  Yes,  because  it 
comes  off  with  the  leaf. 

[When  you  have  had  the  children  measure  their  leaves, 
have  them  put  the  figures  on  slate  or  paper.  Be  sure  the 
brighter  ones  help  the  duller,  and  so  facilitate  matters.] 

Now  let  us  see  who  has  widest  place.  Measure  farther 
down,  Willie  ?  You  are  too  far  down,  Jessie.  Hold  the 
leaf  flat,  Mary. 

Now  you  may  measure  the  smallest  leaves.  When  this 
has  been  done,  the  results  of  both  observations  may  be 
written  upon  the  board.  A  sort  of  table  may  be  made,  as 
follows  : 


34 


Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 


SIZES   OF  LEAVES. 


Name. 

Largest. 

Smallest. 

White  oak.,.. 
Mapl£ 

Long. 
4fin. 

3i 
6 
i1* 

Wide. 

3iin. 
5i 
if 

•i 

Long, 
if  in. 

2i 

5i 

A. 

Wide, 
iin. 
2f 

-A 

Plantain  
Grass  .  . 

Should  the  teacher  think  best,  the  children  may  add  col- 
umns on  distance  around,  measuring  as  near  as  may  be  the 
margin  of  each  leaf. 

That  is  rather  too  much  to  ask  unless  the  margin  is  very 
regular.  It  is  well  to  have  one  or  two  margins  measured. 
Few  people  realize  the  distance  around  any  object.  This 
scheme  will  furnish  instructive  work  for  two  or  three  les- 
sons. Don't  push  any  observation  lesson  until  the  child 
feels  it  to  be  a  task.  When  interest  begins  to  wane,  drop 
it  and  turn  the  attention  elsewhere. 

Another  drill  in  observation  of  size  and  measurement  of 
handy  forms  is  to  have  each  child  procure  a  piece  of  string 
not  less  than  three  yards  long.  Take  the  yardstick  and 
appoint  them  two  and  two  to  measure  the  circumference 
of  several  trees  about  two  feet  from  the  ground.  Let  them 
use  the  string,  and  then  by  applying  it  to  the  yardstick 
they  can  tell  the  distance  around  any  tree  in  the  yard. 
This  is  eminently  practical  work,  and  will  benefit  the  pupil 
in  many  ways. 

I  have  found  children  fifteen  years  old  who  did  not 
know  how  to  use  a  measure,  and  who  had  no  conception 
of  distance,  yet  they  knew  the  tables  by  heart.  Out  on  such 
methods!  One  fifteen  minutes  spent  in  measuring  any  ob- 
ject is  better  in  the  practical  results  than  any  table  learned 
by  heart  to-day,  forgotten  to-morrow. 

Another  most  interesting  lesson  on  measurement  is  to 
take  some  place  beneath  the  trees  in  early  autumn  when 
the  leaves  lie  around  upon  the  ground.  Measure  a  square 
yard  on  the  ground  and  have  the  leaves  counted  which  lie 
in  the  space.  The  number  will  astonish  most  pupils. 


The  Daisy.  35 

Then  if  it  takes  a  certain  number  to  cover  a  square  yard, 
how  many  will  be  required  to  cover  the  ground  under  the 
tree? 

Such  problems,  assigned  to  be  solved  at  home,  will  add 
much  to  the  interest  in  number-work. 

D.  FLOWERS. 

I.   The  Daisy. 

Bring  into  the  school-room  a  large  bunch  of  daisies,  or, 
better,  ask  the  children  to  bring  you  some  at  recess.  The 
daisy  is  so  common  that  it  is  easily  obtained.  Any  com- 
mon flower  will  do  quite  as  well.  When  ready,  give  each 
child  ten  flowers. 

Lay  the  flowers  on  your  desks,  children.  Mary,  where 
did  you  get  your  daisies  ?  Arthur,  where  did  yours  come 
from  ?  Anna,  do  daisies  grow  in  sunny  or  shady  places  ? 
Willie,  did  you  find  yours  in  rich  or  barren  soil  ?  Martha, 
do  daisies  grow  in  dry  or  damp  places  ? 

Having  obtained  correct  replies  to  the  above,  ask  some 
one  to  tell  where  daisies  grow,  putting  the  above  facts  into 
one  or  two  sentences. 

Jennie,  what  color  is  the  daisy  ?  Yes,  it  has  a  yellow 
center  with  white  flowers  around  it.  What  does  the  daisy 
look  like  ?  Yes,  the  centre  looks  like  a  button  or  a  ball, 
the  whole  flower  like  a  star.  What  shall  we  call  these  white 
flowers  around  the  yellow  centre  ?  Let  us  call  them  rays, 
because  they  make  the  daisy  look  like  a  star. 

We  will  call  the  yellow  centre  the  disk.  Now  take  one 
daisy  from  your  desks,  children.  Count  the  rays  on  the 
one  you  have  taken  up.  I  will  write  the  numbers  on  the 
board,  and  you  may  write  them  on  your  slates.  Now  you 
may  tell  me,  one  at  a  time,  how  many  rays  there  are  on 
your  daisy. 

Mary,  31. 

Jessie,  29. 


36  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

Willie,  34. 

Hannah,  35,  etc.,  etc. 

This  will  disclose  the  fact  that  these  flowers  differ  in  the 
number  of  their  rays.  Now,  if  the  teacher  wishes  to  sus- 
pend the  nature-work  and  take  up  number-work,  he  may 
proceed.  Mary  had  a  daisy  with  31  rays  ;  how  many  rays 
would  there  be  in  5  daisies  ?  etc.,  etc.  Willie's  daisy  had 
34  rays  ;  how  many  were  there  on  J  his  daisy  ?  Children 
of  higher  classes  may  be  required  to  add  the  numbers  and 
divide  by  the  number  of  flowers,  thus  finding  the  average 
number  of  rays  to  a  flower.  Expedients  will  readily  sug- 
gest themselves  to  any  wide-awake  teacher.  This  flower 
will  furnish  material  for  number-work,  language-work,  busy- 
work,  and  almost  every  kind  of  work  done  by  children 
during  the  first  four  years  of  school. 

Read  to  the  children  Burns'  Poem  to  a  Daisy;  sketch  a 
cluster  of  them  on  the  board.  Cultivate  the  eye,  the  heart, 
with  those  humble  instruments  thrown  with  such  lavish 
profusion  around  your  school-house. 

At  another  time  make  a  comparison  between  the  white 
daisy  and  the  yellow  one  (Rudbeckia)  as  to  form,  size, 
soil,  color,  number  of  rays,  etc.  Have  conventional  de- 
signs for  wall-paper,  tiles,  oilcloths,  dress  goods,  etc.,  etc., 
made  from  this  flower  or  any  other  handy  one. 


The  Daisy. 

Jennie  Miller. 

Mr.  Mun's  field. 

Soil   

Dry,  rich    sandy. 

2  ft.  6^  in. 

Number  of  flowers  examined  

10 

Color  of  rays  

White 

•24. 

Average  number    10  flowers           •  .  .  .      .  . 

•22 

Strong  smell. 

Date  

June  3,  1894. 

Although  number  lessons  and  language  lessons  may  be 
built  upon  the  nature  lessons,  yet  the  nature  lesson  should 
be  given  as  such,  not  as  an  introduction  to  any  other  line 


The  Gentian. 


37 


of  school-work.      Nature  study,  for  its   own  sake,  should 
have  a  place  in  the  school. 


II.  THE  GENTIAN  (Figs.  5  and  6). 

Gentians  are  so  common,  so  conspicuous,  and  so  beauti- 
ful that,  coming  as  they  do  so  late  in  autumn,  they  are 
among  the  most  appropri- 
ate flowers  to  study  at  that 
time  of  the  year.  At  least 
one  whole  plant  should  be 
obtained  when  possible,  so 
that  all  its  parts  may  be 
seen.  I  would  not  advise 
the  digging  of  roots  enough 
for  a  whole  class,  for  such 
an  act  as  that  would  soon 
drive  these  beautiful  blos- 
soms from  our  forests.  One 
root  is  enough,  but  each 
child  should  have  at  least 
one  flower  to  examine  for 
himself,  and  the  one  with 
roots  should  be  passed  from 
one  to  another,  and  each 
child  may  see  the  plant  in 
toto.  I  would  not  advise 
the  teacher  to  procure  the 
plants  for  a  class.  Have 
the  children  procure  their 
own  if  possible.  This  is  so 
that  they  may  observe  the 
locality,  soil,  and  surround- 
ings of  the  plant.  Having  FIG.  5. 
supplied  each  child  with  a  specimen,  time  should  be  given 
to  allow  all  an  opportunity  to  observe  their  specimens 
Perfect  silence  should  reign  while  each  looks  at  his  plant. 


38  Lessons  in  Nature  Study 

Oral  Lesson. — Having  given  time  for  silent,  indepen- 
dent observation,  get  each  pupil  to  tell  all  he  sees.  Ques- 
tion to  get  him  to  see  what  he  has  not  yet  observed. 
Ignore  those  features  which  the  child  cannot  see,  i.e.,  is 
not  ready  to  see. 

Illustration.— The  untrained  child  will  probably  not  be 
able  to  see  more  than  that  the  flower  is  blue,  and  perhaps 
that  the  petals  are  fringed  (fringed  gentian),  or  that  the 
flower  is  closed  (closed  gentian). 

It  will  then  be  the  teacher's  place  to  ask  questions  like 
the  following :  Are  there  many  or  few  roots  ?  Their  color 
and  size  ?  Are  they  branching  or  simple  ?  What  is  the 
position  of  the  stem  ?  Its  shape  ?  Break  it ;  is  it  solid  or 
hollow  ?  Its  height  ?  Its  surface  (rough  or  smooth)  ?  Its 
color  ?  Does  it  bend  readily  (flexible  or  brittle)  ?  How 
are  the  leaves  placed  on  the  stem  ?  Are  they  few  or  many  ? 
Large  or  small  ?  etc.  Their  shape,  size,  color,  and  general 
appearance  ?  Are  all  leaves  alike  ?  Compare  the  lower 
with  the  upper  leaves.  Are  the  flowers  alone  or  in  clus- 
ters ?  Are  they  single  or  double  ?  How  many  sepals 
(green  outer  flower-leaves)  ?  Describe  the  petals  as  you 
did  the  leaves.  Draw  a  petal.  Cut  open  a  flower.  Are 
petals  separate  or  united  ?  Count  the  stamens.  To  what 
do  they  grow  ?  Are  they  between  or  opposite  the  petals  ? 
How  many  pistils  ?  Draw  the  pistil.  Cut  it  crosswise 
and  draw  the  section  ?  What  do  you  find  inside  the  large 
part  of  the  pistil  (ovary)  ?  When  these  (ovules)  ripen  into 
seeds,  how  will  they  get  out  of  the  pod  ?  Where  are  the 
seeds  attached  to  the  ovary  ? 

The  foregoing  questions  may  be  multiplied  indefinitely. 
The  teacher  should  at  least  bring  out  the  following  facts  : 

The  roots  are  many,  fibrous,  white.  The  stem  is  smooth, 
green,  erect,  rarely  branching.  The  flowers  are  usually 
three  or  four  in  number,  four-parted,  blue,  with  "  satiny  " 
fringed  petals.  The  stamens  are  equal  in  number  to  the 
petals.  The  pistil  is  large,  having  two  stigmas  at  the  top. 

The   flowers   growing   in   shade   are   always  paler   than 


The  Gentian. 


those  growing  in  the  open  sunshine.  The  gentian  favors 
rich  moist  soil,  but  never  wet  soil.  The  stem  and  root 
have  a  strong  bitter  taste. 

Various  sketches,  such  as  the  accompanying  drawings 
(Figs.  V  and  VI)  may  be  made  :  No.  i,  entireplant  ;  2,  the 
pistil  ;  3,  same  cut  crosswise  ;  4,  a  seed  highly  magnified 
showing  its  loose  coat  ;  5,  the  flower  cut  open  to  show  al- 
ternation of  stamens  and  form  of  petals  ;  6,  plan  of  the 
flower,  parts  being  respectively  sepals,  petals,  stamens,  and 
pistils. 


fcjtil. 


FIG.  6. 

Never  draw  the  thing  for  a  pupil.  Let  him  draw  what 
he  sees.  Only  after  the  child  has  done  his  best  by  himself 
would  I  let  him  see  the  printed  or  blackboard  form.  It  is 
the  artist  who  paints  from  the  living  subject.  He  who  en- 
larges a  photograph  is  not  necessarily  an  artist,  hence  the 
foregoing  directions. 

Written  Lesson — The  written  lesson  may  follow  the  oral 
one  immediately,  but  it  is  better  to  take  the  following  day 
for  the  written  lesson.  Before  writing  it  is  well  to  have  a 
brief  review  of  the  gentian  from  memory.  This  is  almost 
necessary  in  a  primary  school,  but  with  larger  pupils  no 
oral  review  is  needed. 


40  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

When  all  are  ready  with  paper  and  pens,  the  order  may 
be  given  to  write,  as  neatly  as  possible,  a  description  of  the 
gentian.  This  description  should  be  illustrated  with  draw- 
ings, either  from  memory  or  after  the  sketches  from  the 
plant  itself. 

Before  taking  up  the  written  work  the  teacher  should 
say  :  "  Begin  and  end  your  sentences  properly."  "  Look 
to  your  capitals  and  punctuation."  "  Be  careful  with  your 
penmanship." 

Suggestions. — Each  plant  may  be  pressed  between  some 
thoroughly  dried  newspapers.  Use  a  board  and  about  six 
bricks  as  a  weight  to  press  them.  When  thoroughly  dry, 
mount  the  plant  on  Bristol-board  cut  same  size  as  the  writ- 
ten exercises,  and  bind  the  whole  together  with  a  ribbon  or 
a  brass  clip.  This  makes  an  attractive  exhibit,  and  also  a 
souvenir  of  work  done  in  school.  No  work  should  be  ac- 
cepted until  it  has  been  done  neatly.  Misspelled  words 
should  be  marked  for  the  pupil  to  copy  and  study. 

This  beautiful  flower  is  also  easily  made  into  designs  for 
drawing,  and  since  its  leaves  are  in  twos  and  the  parts  of 
its  flowers  in  fours,  there  is  likewise  an  opportunity  to  use 
it  with  lowest  primary  classes  in  number-work. 

Having  studied  the  fringed  gentian  carefully,  bring  in  the 
various  beautiful  poems  about  it.  Bryant,  Lowell,  Whittier, 
and  others  have  celebrated  its  beauties  in  song.  These 
selections  are  excellent  for  supplementary  reading. 

The  following  flowers  are  offered  as  good  subjects  for 
similar  lessons  in  autumn  :  the  bellflower,  goldenrod, 
aster,  sunflower,  lady's  -  tresses,  chickweed,  and  closed 
gentian. 

In  conclusion  the  following  scheme  for  Friday  afternoon 
programmes  is  offered  :  select  a  flower  as  the  subject  for  the 
afternoon.  Let  the  school-room  be  decorated  with  this 
flower  where  it  can  be  found  in  abundance.  Let  the  black- 
boards be  ornamented  with  drawings  of  the  plant  from 
nature,  with  conventional  designs  of  tiles  and  borders  hav- 
ing this  flower  for  a  unit.  This  may  be  easily  done  with 


Other  Botanical  Lessons.  41 

such  flowers  as  the  daisy,  dandelion,  periwinkle,  violet, 
azalea,  anemone,  gentian,  goldenrod,  aster,  rose,  etc.  When 
the  flower  is  not  abundant,  there  may  be  at  least  a  bouquet 
on  the  teacher's  desk.  The  programme  may  consist  of  selec- 
tions from  the  poets  relative  to  the  flower  to  be  honored, 
interspersed  with  musical  selections,  and  three  or  four  of 
the  best  written  exercises  of  the  children.  The  result  of 
such  a  programme  can  not  fail  to  inspire  both  teachers  and 
pupils  with  a  deeper  love  for  nature.  The  children  will 
know  the  flowers  and  love  them.  They  will  be  able  to  de- 
scribe them  and  tell  where  they  grow  and  how  they  live. 
They  will  know  what  poets  have  said  about  them,  and 
knowing  one  plant  intimately  will  enable  them  to  learn 
others  more  readily. 

OTHER  BOTANICAL  LESSONS. 

Roots  form  excellent  material  for  nature  lessons. 
These  are  especially  good,  because  they  may  be  had  at  all 
seasons.  Thus  in  summer  the  plantain  with  its  numerous 
long  white  fibrous  roots,  the  violets  with  their  matted  fibrous 
roots,  the  short  tap-roots  of  many  weeds  and  vegetables 
(cabbage,  onion,  etc.)  are  easily  obtained  and  studied.  But 
in  winter  beets,  carrots,  parsnips,  and  sweet  potatoes  are  to 
be  had.  Turnips  and  carrots  are  also  easily  drawn  and 
colored,  and  all  roots  furnish  materials  for  clay  or  papier- 
mache  modelling. 

Branching. — Modes  of  branching  may  naturally  fol- 
low lessons  on  buds.  They  may  be  deferred  until  the  fol- 
lowing lessons  on  trees  are  taken  up.  Budding,  branching, 
and  trees  themselves  are  so  closely  related  that  it  is  always 
advisable  to  treat  them  at  or  near  the  same  time. 

Leaves. — So  much  has  been  published  on  leaves  that 
it  has  not  seemed  advisable  to  the  writer  to  outline  any 
special  lessons  upon  them  in  this  book.  Every  teacher 
should  have  Miss  Youmans'  First  Book  in  Botany  as  a  guide 
to  all  elementary  lessons  on  plant-forms.  The  use  of  leaves 
as  elementary  units  of  design  is  admirable. 


42  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

Flowers. — Aside  from  two  or  three  flowers,  the  writer 
has  omitted  lessons  upon  these  fascinating  objects  of 
nature  for  the  reason  that  all  the  leading  school-papers  as 
well  as  many  books  give  much  space  to  the  subject  of 
flowers.  With  flowers,  as  with  leaves,  their  use  as  units  of 
design  and  objects  for  conventional  drawing  cannot  be  too 
highly  commended. 


The  Crayfish.  43 


LESSONS  ON  ANIMALS. 

FISHES. 

The  Crayfish. 

Shortly  after  ice  breaks  up  in  early  spring  go  to  some 
pond  or  stream  with  a  dip-net  made  of  thin  cloth  fastened 
to  a  wire  hoop.  A  little  effort  will  secure  a  liberal  supply 
of  larvae  of  frogs  and  other  creatures.  Crayfish  will  nearly 
always  be  found,  and  usually  there  will  be  seen  numerous 
eggs  fastened  to  the  swimmerets  under  the  long  abdomen. 
Place  your  material  in  a  large  shallow  tin  pan  of  water  and 
take  to  school.  Here  the  complete  change  from  egg  to 
crayfish  may  be  observed  by  the  children.  It  is  interesting 
if  each  child  can  have  a  bowl  of  water  of  his  own  to 
observe,  but  I  have  found  one  large  vessel  of  water  quite 
sufficient  for  observations  of  an  entire  room.  If  you  fail  of 
securing  eggs,  you  can  at  least  have  observations  made 
upon  the  adult.  These  observations  should  at  least  bring 
out  the  following  facts  :  i.  Its  body  is  jointed.  2.  It  has 
ten  jointed  legs.  3.  It  has  long  antennae.  4.  Its  eyes  are 
on  stalks,  like  those  of  the  snail.  5.  It  can  move  either 
forward  or  backward,  but  it  prefers  a  backward  motion. 
6.  In  moving  it  turns  the  tail  under  and  darts  quickly 
backward.  7.  It  uses  the  tail  for  swimming.  8.  The  jaws 
move  from  side  to  side.  9.  The  first  pair  of  feet  is  enlarged 
into  huge  claws.  10.  The  body  is  covered  with  limy  scales 
(crusts).  ii.  Under  the  large  side-plates  are  the  gills. 
12.  The  cray-fishes  shed  their  scales  (moult)  from  time  to 


44  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

time.  They  have  to  do  this  in  order  to  grow.  13.  Note 
how  it  acts  when  teased.  At  first  it  attempts  to  escape, 
then  it  defends  itself  with  its  claws. 

Read  to  the  children  about  the  crayfish  ;  how  it  burrows 
in  the  earth  in  summer,  bringing  much  dirt  to  the  surface, 
and  digging  wells  to  find  water  in  dry  seasons.  Tell  that  in 
this  manner  they  are  a  great  benefit  to  plants,  but  that  they 
often  do  much  damage  by  making  holes  in  levees  along  the 
Southern  rivers. 

Older  pupils  may  dissect  crayfishes  when  dead  and  mount 
the  parts  upon  card  for  more  special  study.  If  they  desire 
to  prepare  some  crayfishes  for  permanent  collection,  first 
soak  them  in  a  solution  of  glycerine,  alcohol,  and  arsenic 
for  several  days ;  then  remove,  rinse,  and  dry  before 
mounting.  The  same  solution  is  good  for  preparing  worms, 
caterpillars,  etc. 

The  Turtle. 

Some  common  kind  of  turtle  is  most  desirable.  If  pos- 
sible, the  turtle  should  be  brought  into  school  and  kept 
there  several  days  before  the  lesson  is  given.  In  addition 
to  a  living  turtle  it  is  well  to  have  one  or  more  preserved 
turtles,  turtle  eggs,  skulls,  etc.,  and  some  ornaments  made 
of  tortoise-shell. 

Where  does  the  turtle  live  ?  Do  all  turtles  live  in  water  ? 
Do  they  always  live  in  water  ?  What  do  we  call  creatures 
which  live  partly  on  land  and  partly  in  the  water  ?  Am- 
phibians. Does  a  turtle  breathe  by  lungs  or  gills  ?  Give 
reason  for  your  opinion.  Can  you  find  its  nostrils  ?  Exam- 
ine its  beak.  Has  it  any  teeth  ?  Why  not  ?  Is  its  blood 
warm  or  cold?  Examine  the  shell  Of  how  many  scales 
is  it  composed  ?  Observe  the  breast-bone.  See  what  bright 
eyes  he  has.  Why  does  he  not  run  away  when  teased  ? 
What  does  he  do  ?  Some  turtles  have  a  soft  shell  like 
leather  ;  others  can  shut  up  their  shells  like  a  box.  Tor- 
toise-shell is  very  valuable  for  ornaments.  Eggs  and  flesh 
of  turtles  are  very  good  for  food. 


The  Canary— The  Chick.  45 

A  turtle  may  be  preserved  by  making  ari  incision  in  the 
soft  side  between  the  front  and  back  shells  and  placing  him 
in  a  solution  of  alcohol,  glycerine,  and  arsenic.  The  solu- 
tion will  penetrate  the  body  and  keep  it  from  decomposi- 
tion. 

BIRDS. 

The  Canary. 

Let  a  pupil  bring  a  bird-cage  to  school.  This  cage 
should  contain  one  or  more  birds.  Hang  it  where  the 
birds  may  be  seen  from  time  to  time,  so  that  their  mode  of 
life  may  be  observed.  Describe  the  canary  ;  its  round 
head,  full  throat,  slender  legs,  long  toe-nails.  What  is  its 
color?  Are  all  canaries  colored  so?  How  many  toes  has 
the  canary  ?  Do  they  all  start  from  the  same  point  on  the 
leg  ?  How  does  it  sit  upon  a  perch  ?  What  takes  the  place 
of  a  heel  ?  Are  all  toes  of  equal  length  ?  Examine  the 
bill.  How  does  its  shape  compare  with  the  bill  of  a  chick  ? 
Examine  the  eyes,  their  position  in  the  head,  the  three 
eyelids,  and  the  way  each  moves.  Examine  the  scales  upon 
the  legs.  Are  these  scales  alike  in  front  and  behind? 
What  does  the  canary  eat  ?  How  does  it  crack  a  seed  ? 
How  does  it  drink  ?  Watch  the  bird  for  five  minutes  or 
less  and  then  recount  what  it  has  done  in  that  time.  Give 
the  bird  a  bathing-dish  of  fresh  water.  Watch  it  bathe.  A 
lesson  in  cleanliness.  When  possible  it  is  well  to  have  a 
large  family  cage  and  let  a  bird  raise  her  young  where  day 
by  day  they  may  be  seen  and  conversed  about.  (I  would 
not  advise  the  bringing  of  any  but  canaries  into  the  school- 
room, as  other  birds  pine  in  confinement.) 

The  Chick. 

A  friend  of  mine  once  borrowed  a  small  "  coop  "  con- 
taining a  hen  and  thirteen  young  chicks  and  kept  them  a 
day  in  her  school.  Such  a  plan  may  succeed  very  well,  but 
children  must,  in  such  cases,  be  cautioned  not  to  handle 
the  feathery  babies. 


46  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

Describe  the  young  chicks  ;  their  shape,  color,  covering, 
and  manner  of  running.  Notice  how  they  eat  and  "peep." 
See  how  they  run  to  their  mother  whenever  she  gives  a  cer- 
tain call.  See  how  anxious  the  old  hen  appears  when  her 
chicks  venture  too  far  from  her.  If  young,  you  may  still 
find  the  little  hard  point  adhering  to  their  bills  with  which 
they  broke  out  of  the  shell.  See  how  small  and  round  their 
little  wings  are.  Feed  them  some  wet  meal  or  moist  bread- 
crumbs. How  greedily  they  eat  it.  Compare  the  hen  with 
the  canary,  as  regards  bill,  feet,  legs,  feathers,  eyes  and 
eyelids,  food,  size,  use,  etc.  Hens  belong  to  a  great  family 
of  birds  called  scratchers,  because  they  scratch  for  their 
food. 

It  is  well  to  bring  into  school  on  some  other  day  a 
dressed  fowl  and  show  to  the  children  the  various  parts  of 
the  body. 

The  Robin. 

This  bird  comes  so  early  in  the  year  that  his  arrival  is 
always  hailed  with  joy.  How  does  a  robin  go  along  on  the 
ground  ?  Hops.  Why  does  he  go  hopping  along  in  the 
grass  ?  What  does  he  eat  ?  Did  you  never  see  a  robin  hop- 
ping along  with  a  long  worm  in  his  mouth  ?  What  else  do 
robins  eat  ?  Did  you  ever  find  the  cherries  on  the  tree  all 
pecked  full  of  holes  ?  Who  did  it  ?  What  sharp  sight  the 
robin  must  have  to  see  worms  away  down  on  the  ground. 
Compare  his  bill  with  those  of  the  canary  and  the  chick. 
Describe  the  robin  and  her  eggs.  When  the  robins  sing,  we 
feel  that  spring  is  close  at  hand.  Sometimes  when  they 
sing  in  a  peculiar  way  we  say  they  are  calling  for  rain  ;  but 
when  the  cat  gets  the  young  robins  we  hear  them  giving 
their  piteous  cry  of  alarm.  They  build  their  nests  in  trees, 
and  make  them  of  hair,  sticks,  grasses,  and  mud.  When 
they  go  south  in  the  fall,  they  gather  in  large  flocks. 

The  robin  is  a  good  subject  for  teaching  patience,  ten- 
derness, jollity,  and  self-denial,  for  it  exhibits  all  these 
traits  in  the  care  of  its  young  and  its  merry  song  in  the 


The  Duck — The  Hawk.  47 

spring.  Robins  give  us  often  much  trouble  by  stealing 
fruit,  but  their  song  and  blithe  manner  recompense  for  all 
their  failings. 

The  Duck. 

Describe  the  body  of  the  duck.  Compare  it  with  the 
chicken  in  shape.  Notice  the  way  in  which  the  legs  are 
attached,  i.e.,  so  far  back  as  to  make  walking  awkward. 
Such  walking  is  called  waddling.  Does  this  position  of  the 
legs  aid  or  detract  from  the  duck's  ability  to  swim  ?  Why  ? 
What  advantage  is  there  in  the  broad  flat  bill  ?  Study  the 
plumage  closely.  See  how  much  more  down  the  duck  has 
than  the  hen.  Examine  the  feet.  How  many  toes  ?  How 
many  project  forward  ?  How  do  the  feet  differ  from  those 
of  the  hen  and  canary  ?  Is  this  web  thick  or  thin  ?  Does 
it  unite  all  toes  ?  With  what  is  it  covered  ?  How  do  the 
web-scales  differ  from  those  on  the  leg  ?  Why  does  nature 
give  birds  scales  on  their  feet  and  legs  instead  of  feathers  ? 
Compare  ducks'  eggs  with  those  of  hens',  canaries',  and 
robins'.  Hunt  for  the  oil-gland  just  above  the  tail.  How 
does  a  bird  dress  its  feathers  ?  Why  ?  What  noise  do 
ducks  make  ?  Bring  out  the  fact  that  the  duck  is  suited  to 
its  environment  just  as  is  the  chick.  The  duck  could  not 
swim  if  its  feet  were  like  those  of  the  hen,  and  the  hen 
could  not  pick  if  her  bill  were  shovel-like,  as  the  duck's  is. 
Nature  thus  suits  all  things  to  their  surroundings. 

The  Hawk. 

This  bird  should  be  described  in  a  manner  similar  to 
the  preceding.  Care  should  be  taken  to  point  out  those 
characteristics  which  make  hawks,  owls,  etc.,  different  from 
the  birds  previously  studied. 

Some  of  these  characteristics  are  found  in  the  hooked 
bill  and  talons  (claws),  fitted  for  tearing  food  and  charac- 
teristic of  flesh-eating  birds.  The  large  bright  eye,  the 
haughty  pose,  the  vigorous  manner  of  motion,  all  show  a 
near  relationship  to  the  eagle,  owl,  and  vulture.  Describe 


48  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

how  the  hawk  steals  chickens  and  other  birds.  Tell  how 
you  have  seen  very  small  birds,  like  robins,  sparrows,  and 
bluebirds,  attack  a  hawk  which  had  robbed  them  of  their 
young.  Describe  the  sport  of  hawking  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

Clothing  and  Shelter. 

Note  to  the  Teacher — The  autumn  is  a  good  time  to 
take  up  a  series  of  lessons  on  clothing  and  shelter.  Then 
it  is  that  nature  begins  to  plan  for  the  protection  of  her 
children.  Such  a  series  of  lessons  may  well  begin  with  a 
talk  by  the  teacher  in  which  allusion  is  made  to  the  fact 
that  all  things  are  preparing  for  their  long  sleep.  As  in  a 
preceding  lesson,  twigs  should  be  shown  on  which  the  winter 
buds  are  already  forming  with  their  various  means  of  bud 
protection.  Attention  should  be  called  to  the  fact  that 
birds  are  not  moulting  now,  and  horses,  cattle,  cats,  and 
dogs  are  not  shedding  their  hair,  but  are.  getting  fine  thick 
coats  for  winter  wear. 

Propose  then  to  study  the  clothing  of  various  animals,  and 
request  pupils  to  bring  in  all  manner  of  things  which  serve 
as  clothing,  shelter,  or  protection  for  animals  or  men.  This 
will  include  feathers,  scales,  hair,  fur,  wool,  textiles  such  as 
cotton,  hemp,  flax,  and  silk,  and  all  manner  of  nests  of  birds 
and  insects.  The  fall  and  winter  are  good  for  such  collec- 
tions, since  the  nests  are  mostly  deserted  then  and  there  is 
no  cruelty  in  getting  them  at  such  a  time. 

A  Feather. 

Children,  can  you  tell  me  any  one  who  has  chickens  ? 
Can  I  get  some  of  you  to  bring  me  some  nice  clean  feathers  ? 
(These  questions  will  usually  result  in  supplying  the  teacher 
with  an  abundant  quantity  of  all  kinds  of  feathers.)  Select 
similar  feathers,  say  those  from  the  tail  or  wing  of  the 
chicken.  Give  one  to  each  child  and  tell  him  to  examine 
it  carefully.  How  long  is  the  feather?  How  wide  is  it? 
Is  it  alike  on  both  sides?  What  are  soft  fine  feathers 


A  Feather. 


49 


vane. 


called  ?  Here  is  a  piece  of  swan's  down.  Can  you  find 
any  down  on  this  feather?  Where  is  it?  Yes,  there  is  a 
little  down  on  the  feather  just  below  the  wide  part.  Who 
can  tell  the  name  of  the  stem  of  the  feather  ?  Yes,  it  is 
the  quill.  What  is  a  quill  like  (finger-nail,  horn)?  Can  you 
see  through  quill?  What  shall  we  call  anything  that 

we  can  see  through  ?  We 
call  the  wide  part  of  a  feather 
the  vane.  Is  the  vane  alike 
on  both  sides  ?  Which  side 
is  wider  ?  What  makes  the 
parts  of  the  vane  (barbs) 
stick  together  ?  Can  you  not 
see  the  little  hooks  that  hold 
them  together?  Tear  the 
vane  apart.  Does  it  tear 
easily  ?  Can  you  bend  the 
quill  ?  Can  you  cut  it  ?  Is 
it  solid  or  hollow  ?  Is  there 
any  hole  in  it?  Yes,  there 
is  a  small  hole  at  the  lower 
end.  Can  you  find  another 
hole  in  the  quill  ?  Yes,  there 
is  another  hole  among  the 
down  just  below  the  begin- 
ning of  the  vane.  Josie, 
what  do  we  use  feathers  for  ? 
What  kind  do  we  put  in  pil- 
lows? What  kinds  on  our 
hats  and  bonnets  ?  Of  what 
use  are  feathers  to  birds? 

We  call  a  young  feather  just  about  to  grow  a  pin-feather. 
Will  feathers  burn?  When  they  burn,  what  happens? 
They  melt  and  burn  with  a  very  bad  smell.  How  do 
ostrich  feathers  differ  from  those  of  the  hen  ?  Why  does 
nature  give  the  hen  such  thick  stiff  feathers,  and  the 
ostrich  such  light  thin  loose  ones  ?  Hold  a  hen  feather  up 


FIG.  7. — FEATHER  SHOWING  PARTS. 


50  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

before  one  eye  and  look  at  the  sun.  What  do  you  see  ? 
Why  does  the  light  show  all  these  rainbow  colors  ?  It  is 
because  in  passing  through  the  feather  the  ray  is  broken 
up.  Squint  the  eyes  and  look  at  the  sun.  Do  you  not  see 
the  same  colors?  Why?  Get  a  chicken's  head  and  see 
how  many  kinds  of  feathers  grow  on  it.  Examine  the  ear 


FIG.  8. — PARTS  OF  FEATHER  ENLARGED. 

nostril,  sides  of  mouth.  Did  you  ever  watch  a  bird  dress 
her  feathers  ?  How  does  she  do  it  ?  Watch  a  chicken,  a 
canary,  or  any  other  bird  dress  her  feathers  and  describe 
just  how  she  does  it.  Under  the  microscope  the  accom- 
panying drawings  of  the  parts  of  a  feather  were  made  by  a 
pupil.  Now  let  us  see  how  many  kinds  of  feathers  we  can 
get  for  our  museum, 


Hair,  Wool  and  Fur— Nests  of  Birds.  5 1 

Hair,  Woo^  and  Fur. 

To  study  these  things  it  is  necessary  to  have  samples  of 
different  kinds  of  fur.  Pieces  taken  from  the  trimmings  of 
cast-off  wraps,  carriage  robes,  etc.,  are  useful.  These  should 
be  examined  and  compared  as  regards,  fineness,  length, 
thickness,  value,  color,  etc.  Compositions  on  these  things 
form  an  excellent  exercise.  Accounts  of  the  animal  which 
furnishes  each  kind,  how  caught,  and  something  of  his  habits 
and  the  land  where  he  lives,  will  come  in  as  a  part.  Hairs 
should  be  pulled  from  the  head  and  examined  with  a  glass. 
The  root  or  bulb  and  the  delicate  barbs  should  be  noticed. 
The  similarity  to  feathers  is  also  noteworthy. 

Scales  of  fishes  are  very  interesting.  The  way  they 
are  fastened  to  the  fish,  their  size  and  shape,  are  worth 
study.  Are  all  scales  on  the  same  fish  alike  ?  Are  the  scales 
of  all  fishes  alike  in  shape  ?  In  thickness  ?  Scales  on  the 
legs  of  fowls.  Their  points  of  similarity  and  difference 
from  those  of  fishes.  The  scales  of  turtle-shell.  Their 
form,  number,  and  peculiarities. 

Nests  of  Birds. 

The  materials  used  ?  The  way  they  are  woven  ?  Evidence 
of  design  in  their  construction  ?  Where  found  ?  How 
obtained?  Easily  got  or  hard  to  reach?  Compare  these 
nests  one  with  another.  Are  all  robins'  nests  alike  ?  In 
what  respects  do  they  differ  ?  Can  you  account  for  these 
differences  in  material  used  ?  Tell  the  fable  of  how  the 
thorn  bush  plucked  a  little  tuft  of  wool  from  a  little  lamb. 
The  lamb  at  first  complained  to  the  thorn  bush,  but  when 
the  thorn  told  him  that  it  was  done  to  give  the  bird  some- 
thing warm  with  which  to  line  her  nest,  the  little  lamb  told 
the  thorn  to  pluck  as  much  as  she  wanted,  etc.  The  moral 
is  of  mutual  dependence  and  helpfulness. 

Other  kinds  of  nests,  such  as  those  of  the  paper-wasp, 
mud-wasp,  bee,  are  full  of  material.  Spiders'  webs,  snakes' 
holes,  ant-hills,  and  the  hollow  in  the  tree  where  the  squirrel 
sleeps  will  be  good  themes  to  conclude  the,  series, 


Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 


THE  HEN'S  EGG. 


I.  Raw. 

Hold  up  before  your  class  a  fresh  egg. 
How  do  you  know  ?     What  is  its  shape  ? 
you  ever  see  a  larger  egg 
eggs  white,  like  this  one  ? 
eggs,  blue  eggs,  etc.  ? 

What  kinds  of  hens  lay  brown  eggs  ?  Describe  the  shell. 
What  shape  is  it  ?  Is  it  rough  or  smooth  ?  Examine  care- 
fully the  surface  of  the  egg.  Hold  it  to  your  eye  and  close 
the  other  eye.  What  do  you  see  ?  Place  the  lips  at  the 


What  is  this? 
Its  color  ?     Did 

?     What  kind   was  it?     Are   all 
Name  a  bird  that  has  speckled 


FIG.  9. — HEN'S  EGG,  FRESH. 

large  end  of  the  egg.  Hold  them  there  a  moment.  Is  it 
warm  or  cold  ?  Place  the  small  end  of  the  egg  to  your  lips. 
Is  this  end  warmer  or  colder  than  the  large  end  ?  Put  the 
egg  in  clear  water.  Will  it  sink  or  float  ?  Put  it  in  strong 
brine.  Will  it  sink  or  float  now  ?  WThy  ?  Fill  the  vessel 
half  with  strong  brine,  then  carefully  add  a  quantity  of 
fresh  water  so  as  not  to  mix  it  with  the  brine.  Why  does 
the  egg  sink  in  the  water  until  it  reaches  the  brine,  and 
float  in  the  middle  of  the  glass  ? 

Now  we  will  break  the  egg.  We  must  do  it  carefully,  so 
as  not  to  break  the  inside  parts  of  the  egg.  I  will  crack  the 
shell  so,  and  put  the  egg  into  this  saucer.  Now  come  and 
look  at  this  egg,  and  see  what  we  can  find  inside  it  ;  but 
first  let  us  see  what  is  still  in  the,  shell.  How  many  layers 


The  Hen's  Egg.  53 

has  it  ?  Does  it  line  the  shell  all  around  ?  What  do  you 
find  at  the  large  end  ?  Is  this  space  empty  or  full  ?  (We 
will  talk  of  that  again  soon.)  What  color  is  this  thin  skin 
that  lines  the  egg-shell  ?  Can  you  get  it  out  of  the  shell  ? 
Now  let  us  look  in  the  saucer  and  see  the  parts  of  the  egg. 
What  is  this  thin  watery  part  called  ?  Which  part  of  the 
white  is  thicker  than  this  watery  part  ?  What  do  we  call  this 
beautiful  yellow  ball  in  the  centre  of  the  white  ?  Can  you 
see  the  thin  silken  sack  that  covers  the  yolk  ?  See  these 
milky-looking  twisted  cords  that  grow  to  the  yolk  on  each 
side.  What  else  do  you  see  on  the  yolk?  See  if  you  can 
look  closely  and  find  a  lighter  spot.  What  shape  is  this 
spot  ?  Did  you  ever  see  the  little  round  spot  before  ?  Is  it 
always  on  top,  or  beneath  ?  To-morrow  we  will  see  what 
is  inside  of  the  yolk. 

II.  Hard  Boiled. 

Yesterday  we  had  a  fresh  egg.  Let  us  see  how  many 
remember  what  we  learned.  What  color  was  the  shell,  the 
yolk,  the  white  ?  What  comes  next  to  the  shell  inside  ? 
Where  is  the  air-bubble  ?  How  many  parts  has  the  white  ? 
Which  part  is  nearest  to  the  yellow  part  ?  What  is  this  yel- 
low part  called  ?  Why  does  not  the  yellow  part  run  out 
and  mix  with  the  white  ?  What  holds  the  yolk  in  the 
shell  ?  Which  part  of  the  yoke  is  always  on  the  upper 
side? 

Here  is  another  egg.  It  is  hard  boiled.  We  will  crack 
the  shell  and  take  it  off.  When  anything  cracks  and 
breaks  easily,  like  an  egg-shell,  what  do  we  say  of  it? 
Name  some  other  brittle  things.  Now  I  have  tapped  it  all 
over  with  my  ruler  until  the  shell  is  full  of  cracks.  Now 
we  will  pick  the  pieces  of  the  shell  off.  Where  is  the  lining 
of  the  shell  now  ?  Where  is  the  air-bubble  ?  Is  the  lining 
tough  or  tender  ?  Was  it  tougher  or  tenderer  yesterday  ? 
What  did  boiling  the  egg  do  to  the  lining  of  the  shell? 
Where  is  the  white  ?  How  has  boiling  changed  the  white  ? 
Now  let  us  cut  down  through  the  white  carefully,  so  as  not 


54  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

to  cut  the  yolk.  Can  you  find  the  thin  sack  that  covered 
the  yolk  and  kept  the  yellow  from  coming  out  when  the  egg 
was  raw  ?  Look  carefully.  Yes,  here  is  some  on  the  yolk, 
and  there  is  part  of  it  on  the  white  in  the  little  round  hole 
where  the  yolk  lay.  Only  see  how  thin  it  is  !  Now  can  we 
find  the  little  spot  which  we  found  yesterday  on  the  upper 
side  of  the  yolk  ? 

Yes,  Charlie,  you  found  it  first.  Now  we  will  try  to  find 
how  this  yolk  looks  inside.  I  will  cut  it  right  through  the 
centre  of  the  little  round  spot  with  this  sharp  knife.  Now 
see  how  the  egg-yolk  is  made  up  inside.  What  is  in  the 
centre  ?  Which  part  of  the  yolk  is  boiled  hardest  ?  Which 
part  is  still  soft  ?  See  the  layers  around  the  soft  middle. 
What  shape  are  they  (vase-shaped)  ?  What  has  boiling 
done  to  the  yolk  ?  What  can  we  say  heat  does  to  an  egg  ? 

It  changes  the  white  ,  and  the  yolk .     Did    you 

ever  see  mamma  break  an  egg  into  a  hot  pan  on  the  stove  ? 
What  happened  ? 

III.  Experiments. 

If  I  beat  the  white  of  the  egg  with  a  fork,  what  will 
happen  ? 

I  put  this  fresh  egg  in  some  vinegar  yesterday,  and 
left  it  until  to-day  ;  what  has  it  done  ?  Where  has  the 
shell  gone  ? 

Here  is  some  alcohol.  I  will  put  some  on  this  little  piece 
of  white  of  egg.  What  does  it  do  to  it  ?  Little  boys  and 
girls  have  brains  something  like  white  of  egg,  and  when 
they  drink  whiskey,  or  wine,  or  beer,  or  cider  it  does  this 
same  thing  to  their  brains.  We  do  not  want  to  have  our 
brains  cooked  with  this  nasty  alcohol,  do  we?  Then  we 
must  let  all  kinds  of  drinks  alone,  so  as  to  save  our  brains 
from  being  spoiled  by  them.  Take  a  piece  of  this  lining 
out  of  a  fresh  raw-egg  shell,  wet  it  and  put  it  on  your  hand, 
with  the  inside  of  the  lining  down  on  the  hand.  Press  it 
down  and  wait  a  few  minutes  What  is  it  doing  now? 


Insects. 


55 


What  makes  it  stick  to  your  skin,  Mary  ?     Does  it  hurt, 
Sadie  ?     Wet  the  hand  and  it  will  come  off  again. 

Place  the  egg  in  vinegar  or  other  acid  for  a  day,  and  the 
shell  will  be  dissolved. 

INSECTS. 

The  beginning  of  the  fall  term  is  the  best  time  to  begin 
the  study  of  living  insects.     So  many  insects  are  getting 


FIG.  to.— OBSERVATION  Box. 

ready  for  their  winter  sleep  that,  if  they  are  collected  in 
September,  many  of  their  transformations  may  be  watched, 
and  a  deep  interest  will  thus  be  awakened  as  the  pupils  find 
each  day  that  some  new  change  has  taken  place. 

Begin,  then,  by  collecting  a  few  insects,  no  matter  what. 
Caterpillars  are  preferable  to  butterflies,  as  they  have  all 
their  changes  to  go  through.  To  study  living  insects  it  is 
necessary  to  have  some  sort  of  "  observation  box  ;  those 


56  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

used  for  the  shipment  of  honey  are  very  good."  But  the 
most  approved  device  of  this  kind  is  made  by  taking  com- 
mon inch  boards  from  six  to  eight  inches  wide,  and  making 
a  box  as  in  Fig.  10.  This  box  should  be  just  long  enough 
to  sit  upon  the  window-sill.  The  bottom  and  sides  consist 
of  board.  The  ends,  also  of  board,  should  extend  up  to 
eighteen  or  twenty-four  inches  above  the  sides,  and  plates  of 
glass  should  fit  in  as  in  an  aquarium.  A  fine  wire-gauze  top 
should  be  put  on.  This  prevents  the  escape  of  insects  and 
permits  a  free  circulation  of  air. 

Having  completed  the  "observation  box,"  fasten  it  se- 
curely to  the  window-sill,  and  then  begin  to  populate  it. 
Every  insect  caught  should  be  given  its  own  proper  food. 
This  is  easily  done  when  the  collector  is  careful  to  bring  in 
a  spray  of  the  plant  on  which  it  is  found.  Place  the  spray 
in  a  bottle  of  water,  and  set  the  bottle  down  in  the  box. 
Fresh  sprays  must  be  supplied  as  the  old  ones  wither. 
Water  larvae  may  be  placed  in  dishes  of  water  and  also  set 
into  the  box,  where  their  changes  may  be  watched  with 
interest.  Grubs  dug  from  the  earth  may  be  placed  in  soil 
in  a  can,  or  the  whole  box  may  be  filled  with  mould  for  their 
benefit.  Thus  every  condition — light,  darkness,  air,  water, 
etc. — can  be  supplied  for  the  study  of  these  creatures. 

Having  placed  your  "  observation  box  "  on  the  window- 
sill,  and  having  peopled  it  with  whatever  is  most  convenient, 
begin  a  series  of  systematic  observations  on  one  or  more  of 
the  inhabitants  of  the  box.  A  good  way  is  to  assign  some 
one  insect  to  each  pupil,  or  let  two  or  three  pupils  observe 
one.  Let  them  report  each  day  what  has  happened. 

HINTS  AS  TO  THE  ORDER  OF  WORK. 

Each  pupil  will  have  a  notebook,  and  proceed  to  : 

1.  Draw  the  insect  in  different  positions. 

2.  Draw  the  insect  in  different  parts — viz.,  head,  tail,  legs, 
etc. 

3.  Note  his  food. 


Hints  as  to  the  Order  of  Work.  57 

4.  Manner  of  eating  (how  the  jaws  work). 

5.  Manner  of  motion  and  locomotion. 

6.  Rate  of  eating,  etc. 

7.  Changes  in  action. 

8.  Note  all  changes  with  dates  until  death. 
Example.— Asterias  butterfly  (caterpillar). 
ist  Observation. — Describe  it  with  drawing. 
zd  Observation. — Acts  sluggish. 

$d  Observation. — No  change. 

4///  Observation. — Attached  hind  foot  to  roof  of  box. 

5/7*  Observation. — Spins  a  collar  or  loop  to  fasten  his 
head  in. 

6th  Observation. — Rests  head  in  loop  and  goes  to  sleep. 

1th  Observation. — Begins  to  change  color. 

§th  Observation. — Begins  to  change  form  also. 

qth  Observation. — Assumes  a  grayish  color  and  a  more 
angular  form. 

Observation. — No  change. 
Observation. — Splits  down  the  back. 

izth  Observation. — Emerges  from  shell,  a  beautiful  black 
butterfly. 

These  should  be  accompanied  by  dates,  and  thus  the  life- 
history  of  the  creature  can  be  determined. 

Last  fall,  while  we  were  studying  the  metamorphosis  of  a 
certain  caterpillar  confined  in  a  cigar-box,  a  most  interest- 
ing duel  was  observed  between  two  caterpillars  of  the  same 
kind.  Both  were  about  ready  to  go  into  the  pupa  state.  One 
had  gone  up  to  the  top  of  the  box,  and  was  just  beginning 
to  fasten  his  hind  foot  firmly  to  the  ceiling  ;  the  other,  not 
seeing  him,  also  crawled  in  the  same  direction.  By  the 
time  that  No.  2  had  reached  No.  i  the  latter  had  begun  to 
spin  his  collar.  No.  2  crawled  on,  and  chanced  to  crawl 
over  No.  i.  Then  a  fight  began.  No.  i  struck  at  No.  2 
with  his  head,  for  he  was  fastened  by  his  feet  to  the  roof. 
No.  2  returned  the  thrust,  and  each  ran  out  a  pair  of 
branching  yellow  horns,  with  which  they  fought  until  No.  2 
fell  to  the  floor,  while  No.  i,  who  became  dislodged  from 


58  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

the  loop,  went  to  spinning  himself  another,  and  after  he 
had  become  a  chrysalis  his  former  loop  hung  useless  beside 
him.  No.  2  went  elsewhere,  and  hung  himself  up  for  his 
long  sleep.  The  children  made  much  of  this,  and  many 
language  lessons  were  built  upon  it. 

The  Beetle. 

In  stocking  the  observation  case  with  such  living  things 
as  the  children  will  collect  from  every  locality  the  question 
will  often  be  what  to  accept  and  what  to  reject.  Often 


FIG.  ii. — «,  A  BEETLE  ;  6,  A  GRUB. 

more  than  one  box  seems  necessary,  but  as  this  is  apt  to 
lead  to  confusion,  it  is  recommended  to  have  only  one. 

Every  locality  should  be  laid  under  contribution.  Stones 
should  be  overturned,  bark  of  dead  trees  removed,  and 
whenever  any  creature  of  the  insect  world  is  seen  he  should 
be  taken,  with  something  of  his  environment,  when  possi- 
ble. To  explain  :  A  caterpillar  should  be  taken  with  the 
branch  on  which  he  is  feeding ;  rotten  wood  with  the 
beetle  found  in  it,  etc. 


The  Beetle.  59 

One  such  "  bug-box  "  contained  a  bottle  of  water  having 
some  sort  of  larvae,  a  baking-powder  box  of  vegetable  mould 
in  which  were  some  white  grubs,  another  full  of  meal  con- 
taining "  meal-worms,"  and  numerous  twigs  bearing  cater- 
pillars. If  these  twigs  are  found  in  early  September,  they 
should  be  often  renewed,  and  be  set  in  bottles  of  water  to 
prevent  their  wilting.  Later  in  the  season  the  caterpillars 
will  not  eat  so  much,  and  late  in  September  and  October 
no  food  need  be  given  them,  as  they  are  usually  ready  to 
form  their  pupas  then. 

It  is  not  possible  to  give  the  exact  names  of  the  insects 
which  will  be  found.  No  two  cases  would  be  inhabited  by 
the  same  denizens,  but  it  is  reasonable  to  assume  that  there 
will  be  members  of  the  great  families  of  insects,  viz.: 
i,  straight-winged;  2,  net-winged j  3,  two-winged;  4,  scaly 
winged;  5,  shell-winged;  6,  half -winged;  and  7,  membrane- 
winged.  These  families  may  be  represented  respectively  by 
i,  grasshoppers;  2,  dragon-flies;  3,  flies;  4,  butterflies;  5, 
beetles;  6,  bugs  ;  and  7,  bees.  On  this  assumption  I  shall 
outline  lessons  on  these  typical  insects. 

Suppose,  then,  that  there  is  among  the  insects  a  grub. 
The  earth  will  be  watched  day  by  day.  A  pupil  will  keep 
count  of  the  days  and  note  when  he  comes  out  ;  also  his 
size,  shape,  color,  and  actions. 

Suppose  it  to  be  a  beetle, — for  beetles  are  plentiful  enough, 
— then  questions  like  the  following  may  be  asked  : 

How  many  parts  has  the  body  ?  Which  part  is  largest  ? 
How  many  legs  ?  Are  the  legs  alike  ?  To  which  part  are 
the  legs  fastened  ?  How  many  joints  in  each  leg?  What 
kind  of  feet  has  the  beetle  ?  How  many  wings  ?  How  do 
the  outer  differ  from  the  inner  wings  ?  What  is  a  baby 
beetle  ?  Grub.  Do  you  see  this  beetle's  feelers  ?  Some 
beetles  have  horns  on  their  heads.  Let  us  try  to  get  differ- 
ent kinds  of  beetles.  Let  us  watch  them  every  day  and  see 
how  they  live. 

(Note. — Beetles  are  often  called  bugs,  but  they  are  not 
real  bugs). 


60  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

Language  Lesson. — The  following  sentences  are  select- 
ed from  language  lessons  and  number  lessons  on  the  beetle. 

The  beetle  is  black.  His  wings  are  shining.  This  beetle 
is  smooth.  This  little  beetle  eats  potato-leaves.  That  large 
beetle  eats  rotten  wood.  The  beetle  has  rough  legs.  His 
legs  have  seven  joints.  His  toes  are  like  little  hooks.  His 
fore  legs  are  shorter.  Do  you  see  the  little  black  eyes  ? 
There  are  knobs  on  his  feelers.  The  feelers  are  like  a  little 
string  of  beads.  The  wings  are  hard  like  a  shell.  The  out- 
side wings  are  stiff,  but  the  inside  wings  are  thin.  There 
are  fine  wings  under  the  shell.  Three  legs  are  on  each  side. 
The  legs  grow  to  the  middle  part.  Beetles  have  a  head,  and 
a  chest,  and  a  big  body.  A  baby  beetle  is  called  a  grub.  I 
saw  a  big  white  grub.  The  grub  was  in  the  dirt.  The  boy 
dug  up  a  fat  grub.  This  red  beetle  has  black  spots.  That 
brown  beetle  is  a  "  June  bug."  I  saw  a  yellow  and  black 
beetle  with  long  feelers.  Beetles  do  not  sting.  Does  this 
beetle  eat  dirt  ?  Do  beetles  bite  boys  and  girls  ?  Beetles 
do  not  sting  or  bite  us.  We  should  not  hurt  these  beetles. 
John  found  three  beetles  under  a  big  flat  stone.  I  saw  a  big 
brown  beetle  on  the  vine. 

The  list  of  sentences  to  be  made  upon  the  beetle  might 
be  increased  almost  indefinitely.     These  are  samples  taken 
at  random  from  the  children's  work. 
^   Number  Lesson. — i.  There  are  6  legs  on  my  beetle. 

2.  3  legs  +  3  ^gs  =  6  legs. 

3.  2  wings  +  2  wings  =  4  wings. 

4.  One  beetle  has  6  legs;  how  many  legs  have  3  beetles  ? 

5  beetles  ?  6  beetles? 

5.  4  wings  —  i  wing  =  3  wings. 

6.  A  beetle  lost  i  leg  ;  how  many  had  he  left  ? 

7.  There  are  7  joints  in  i  leg  ;  how  many  joints  in  all 

6  legs  ? 

8.  9  beetles  H-  5  beetles  —  2  beetles  =  ? 

9.  A  mother  beetle  had  12  little  beetles,   3  flew  away  ; 
how  many  were  left  ? 

10.  A  man  told  a  boy  that  he  would  give  him  a  cent  for 


The  Beetle.  61 

every  10  potato-beetles  he  would  catch.  The  boy  caught 
30  beetles.  How  many  cents  did  the  man  give  him  ?  How 
many  beetles  must  he  catch  to  earn  50  cents. 

General  Suggestion. — i.  In  catching  insects  note  their 

locality,  food,  etc. 

2.  Study   them  alive,   (a)   their   form,   size,    color,  etc.; 
(b)  their  motions  and  locomotion  ;  (c)  food  and  manner  of 
eating  ;  (d)  changes,  etc.;  (e)  draw  back,  front,  side,  and 
end  views  ;  (/)  draw  various  organs  enlarged. 

3.  Call  attention  to  all  these,  and  encourage  the  children 
to  talk  about  them,  and  write  about  them. 

4.  Make  observations  the  basis  of  number  lessons  from 
i  to  6. 

5.  Finally,  when  the  life-history  is  as  complete  as  possible, 
kill  the  insect  with  a  drop  of  naphtha  or  benzine,  and  mount 
him  for  future  use. 

We  know  far  too  little  about  insects,  as  regards  their  life- 
history.  Intelligent  people  often  betray  the  profoundest 
ignorance  of  the  life-history  of  the  commonest  insects.  It 
is  time  to  turn  attention  into  this  channel.  It  will  broaden 
the  mind  ;  it  will  cultivate  the  heart  ;  it  will  enrich  the 
memory  ;  it  will  furnish  an  exhaustless  fund  of  material  for 
language  and  number  lessons. 

The  teacher  should  have  a  box  prepared  to  receive  a  col- 
lection of  insects.  This  will  become  a  part  of  the  school 
museum.  To  kill  an  insect  put  a  drop  of  gasoline  or  naph- 
tha upon  it.  It  will  die  at  once.  This  does  away  with  the 
cruel  method  of  transfixing  with  a  pin.  To  prepare  a  bug- 
case,  take  any  shallow  wooden  box, — one  with  a  sliding 
top  is  preferable, — line  it  with  paper,  and  slide  a  pane  of 
glass  into  the  top  instead  of  the  board  top  which  belongs 
there.  As  fast  as  the  insects  are  killed  pin  them  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  box.  A  small  pill-box  full  of  naphthaline 
powder  or  crystals  placed,  in  this  box  will  keep  out  dust-lice 
and  moths. 

At  first  all  insects  may  be  put  into  one  box,  but  as  the 
collection  grows  it  is  well  to  have  a  separate  box  for  each 


62 


Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 


family  of  insects.  Boxes  especially  prepared  to  receive 
collections  may  be  had  at  trifling  expense  from  any  dealer 
in  scientific  supplies. 

The  Butterfly. 

Note  to  the   Teacher. — Among  the  insects  collected  will 
be   numerous  caterpillars.     The  beetle  in   the  last  lesson 


r.,   Hea»(£    «>}  .1*9*1-'  vss  , 

Z. 

3. 


FIG.  12. 

may  be  followed  by  any  insect  desired,  but  caterpillars  are 
interesting,  as  they  are  beginning  to  seek  places  where  they 


The  Butterfly.  63 

may  build,  or  at   least  where  they  may  hide,  their  cocoons 
during  their  long  sleep. 

Among  the  commonest  caterpillars  is  the  one  here  figured 
(Fig.  i2#).  It  is  a  green  caterpillar,  beautifully  marked 
with  black  bands  and  orange-yellow  dots.  Having  procured 
some  of  these  beautiful  caterpillars,  place  them  in  the  "  bug- 
case  "  and  wait  results.  If  obtained  late  in  the  fall,  the 
observer  will  not  have  to  wait  long.  While  waiting  the 


teacher  may  perform  this  experiment  before  the  children  : 
Select  one  and  tickle  him  with  a  feather  or  other  soft  body. 
If  this  is  persevered  in,  he  will  become  angry  and  thrust  out 
a  pair  of  branching  horns  (?),  and  he  will  strike  at  the  an- 
noying thing  spitefully. 

The  changes  are  better  told  in  the  accompanying  illus- 
trations than  in  words.  It  will  cover  a  long  time  from 
the  time  the  green  larva  is  placed  in  the  "  bug-box  "  until 
he  emerges  from  his  chrysalis  (Fig.  120,  e)  a  beautiful 


64  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

butterfly  This  is  a  black  butterfly  with  blue  and  yellow 
spots  on  the  wings.  Note,  also,  the  beautiful  orange- 
red  dot  at  the  inner  edge  of  the  hind  wings.  If  he  can  be 
caught  in  the  act  of  spinning  his  collar,  there  will  be  no  end 
of  interest  among  the  children.  The  children  should  also 
draw  the  whole  and  parts  of  all  insects  studied,  as  in  Figs. 
i,  2,  3,  4,  etc.  Even  the  mutilated  insects  found  in  street- 
lamp  globes  and  emptied  out  every  day  will  supply  teachers 
in  city  schools  with  abundant  material  for  work  of  this 
kind.  Of  course,  Figs.  4  and  5  can  hardly  be  drawn  by 
children  from  nature  unless  you  have  a  glass,  but  these  may 
be  drawn  by  the  teacher  on  the  board  to  show  the  children 
how  the  wonderful  compound  eyes  are  made,  and  how  the 
beautiful  scales  are  attached  to  the  wings. 

THE   LESSON. 

1.  The  Caterpillar. — How  long  is  this  caterpillar  ?    How 
wide  is  it  ?     How  is  its  body  made  up  ?     Of  how  many 
rings  ?     How  is  each  ring  marked  ?     What  colors  has  this 
larva  ?     Have  all  the  rings  black  bands  with  dots  ?    Which 
have  not  ?    Which   ring   has   hairs  upon  it  ?     How  many 
hairs  ?     How  many  feet  has  this  caterpillar  ?     How  many 
feet  on  each  joint?     Do  all  joints  bear  feet  ?     How  do  the 
feet  on  the  middle  joints  differ  from  those  on  the  front 
joints  ?     How  many  feet  on  the  last  joint  ?     Does  the  hind 
foot  look  like  the  front  or  the  middle  feet  ? 

2.  The  Chrysalis. — What  holds  the  pupa  to  the  stick  ? 
How  did  this  collar  come  there  ?     How  did  the  small  end 
of  the  pupa  get  fastened  to  the  stick  ?     How  does  the  pupa 
differ  in  feeling  from  the  caterpillar  ?     How  do  they  differ 
in  color  ?     In  size  ?     Is  the  pupa  dead  ?     Can  it  move  ? 
Has  this  animal  lost  any  rings  by  changing  into  a  pupa  ? 
Can  you  tell  where  the  feet  were  ? 

3.  The   Imago. — How   many   parts   has   this   butterfly? 
How  many  legs?     How  many  wings  ?     How  many  feelers  ? 
How  do  the  hind  wings  differ  from  the  fore  wings  ?     What 
color  are  the  spots  on  the  wings?    Are  all  spots  alike? 


The  Butterfly.  65 

Which  ones  are  yellow  ?  Which  blue  ?  How  many  rows 
of  spots  on  the  front  pair  ?  On  the  back  pair  ?  How  many 
rings  in  the  abdomen  ?  Notice  the  black  dust  on  the  wings. 
Look  at  it  with  a  glass.  See  the  long  tongue.  How  long 
are  the  tails  on  the  wings  ?  Look  at  the  little  toes.  Draw 
the  head  :  i,  front  view  ;  2',  side  view.  Draw  the  scales. 
Are  the  scales  all  alike  ?  Are  they  alike  on  all  parts  of  the 
insect  ?  Draw  the  front  wings.  See  the  veins  running 
through  them.  Draw  the  hind  wings. 

CONTRAST. — How  do  butterflies  differ  from  beetles  ?     i 
front  wings  ;  2,  hind  wings  ;  3,  antennae  (horns  or  feelers) 
4>  legs  >    5>  size  '•>    6,  color  ;    7,  manner  of  flying  ;    8,  food 
9,  the  way  they  use  their  wings  ;    10,  manner  of  creeping 
n,  shape  of  the  joints  of  their  legs  ;  12,  covering  of  wings. 

COMPARISON. — Wherein  are  butterflies  like  beetles?  i, 
number  of  parts  of  body  ;  2,  made  of  rings  ;  3,  number  of 
legs  ;  4,  attachment  of  legs  ;  5,  number  of  wings  ;  6,  com- 
pound eyes. 

By  such  a  lesson  as  this  the  characteristics  which  belong 
to  insects  as  such  are  brought  out,  and  the  distinctions  be- 
tween the  shell-winged  (coleoptera)  and  scaly-winged  insects 
(lepidoptera)  is  also  brought  out  in  such  a  way  that  the 
child  can  easily  see  that  these  creatures,  so  different  in  some 
respects,  are  very  similar  in  others.  It  is  thus  that  real 
scientific  work  is  done,  and  the  child  acquires  scientific 
habits  of  thought,  and  at  the  same  time  he  is  developing 
material  for  language-  and  number-work. 

Language  Lesson.— This  is  a  butterfly.  The  butterfly 
is  black.  A  baby  butterfly  is  a  caterpillar.  My  butterfly 
came  from  a  green  caterpillar.  The  caterpillar  had  a  green 
and  black  dress.  There  were  yellow  spots  on  the  green 
dress.  He  ate  green  leaves  then.  The  black  dust  came  off 
his  wings.  He  has  two  horns.  The  horns  have  knobs  and 
little  hooks  on  them.  His  eyes  are  very  big.  This  butter- 
fly has  a  long  tongue.  He  eats  honey  with  it. 

Number  Lesson. — i.  12  rings  —  2  rings  =  10  rings. 

2.  2  wings  -f-  2  wings  =  4  wings. 


66  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

3.  2  X  4  legs  =  8  legs. 

4.  8  legs  +  6  legs  =  14  legs. 

5.  If  i  caterpillar  has   12   rings,   how  many  rings  will  3 
caterpillars  have  ? 

6.  If  i    ring  has  6  spots,  10  rings  will  have  how  many 
spots  ? 

7.  If  i  butterfly  had  4  wings  and  he  lost  i,  how  many 
has  he  left  ? 

8.  How  many  legs  has  a  butterfly  ? 

9.  How  many  more  legs  has  a  butterfly  than  a  cat  ?     A 
boy? 

10.  If  i   eye  has  6  sides,  how  many  sides  will  13  eyes 
have? 

Suggestions. — I  have  given  only  a  few  sample  problems 
and  sentences  to  illustrate  the  line  of  work  to  be  followed 
with  primary  pupils. 

It  is  a  good  plan  to  give  all  the  language  and  number  les- 
sons on  the  days  following  insect  study  in  some  such  way, 
and  so  review  the  insect  previously  studied. 

Another  excellent  exercise  in  language  is  to  write  a  skel- 
eton on  the  board  and  have  blanks  filled  in  with  the  neces- 
sary words.  I  give  an  outline  as  follows,  which  may  be 
varied  indefinitely  to  suit  pupils  of  every  grade  in  language  : 

Mary  saw  a  large  green  ...  on  a  stick.  He  had  .  .  . 
rings,  and  all  but  two  had  .  .  .  bands  with  ...  on  them. 
Mary  put  the  green  ...  in  a  cigar-box  and  she  watched 
him  every  day.  After  a  while  he  began  to  act  ...  He 
spun  a  ...  for  his  neck  and  fastened  his  foot  so  that  he 
might  rest.  Then  he  became  .  .  .  and  .  .  .  After  a  great 
many  days  his  shell  was  empty.  There  was  a  big  black 
...  in  the  box.  I  think  that  the  .  .  .  came  out  of  the 
.  .  .  This  butterfly  had  ...  on  his  wings,  and  his  ... 
had  knobs  on  the  ends  of  them.  His  toes  are  little  .  .  . 
He  has  .  .  .  wings  and  .  .  .  legs.  His  ...  is  three-parted. 
A  baby  butterfly  is  called  a  ...  A  caterpillar  is  not  much 
like  a  grub.  A  beetle  is  not  much  like  a  .  .  .  ,  but  they  are 
both  . 


A  Talk  about  the  Fly.  67 

A  Talk  about  the  Fly  (House-fly). 

The  children  should  catch  several  flies.  If  possible, 
each  child  should  have  one  or  two. 

Let  us  look  at  this  little  fly.  How  many  wings  has  the 
fly?  What  color  are  the  fly's  wings  ?  What  shape  are  they  ? 
How  many  parts  has  a  fly's  body  ?  We  call  .the  part  next  to 
the  head  the  chest  or  thorax.  We  call  the  other  part  the 
abdomen.  Ab-do-men  is  a  big  word.  I  will  write  it  on  the 
board.  You  may  write  it  on  your  slates.  Now,  Nellie,  you 
may  tell  us  something  about  the  fly.  "  The  fly  has  three 
parts."  That  is  very  good  indeed.  Georgie,  what  else  did 
we  learn  about  the  fly  ?  "He  has  two  wings."  "The  wings 
are  clear."  "There  are  fine  marks  on  the  wings,"  etc.,  etc., 
will  easily  come  out. 

On  which  part  of  the  fly  do  the  wings  grow  ?  On  which 
part  do  the  legs  grow  ?  How  many  legs  has  a  fly  ?  Now 
lock  carefully  and  see  if  you  can  find  two  little  balls,  one 
on  each  side,  near  the  wings.  Tell  them  that  these  little 
balls  (balancers)  are  to  keep  him  steady  when  he  flies  in 
the  air.  Call  attention  to  his  red  eyes,  and  to  his  peculiar 
mouth,  which  can  be  easily  seen  in  most  flies.  Get  them  to 
tell  you  all  they  can  about  flies  ;  their  habits,  food,  etc.  Tell 
them  that  the  fly  lays  her  eggs  on  meat  or  other  animal  sub- 
stance, and  that  the  eggs  hatch  into  maggots.  These  de- 
velop into  flies.  What  animal  is  the  enemy  of  flies  ?  How 
does  he  catch  them  ?  Did  you  ever  see  a  spider  catch 
a  fly? 

Select  one  or  two  good  specimens  and  pin  them  to  a 
board,  or,  better,  to  the  inner  surface  of  a  pasteboard  box. 
Ask  the  children  to  see  how  many  kinds  of  flies  they  can 
find  to  put  in  your  collection,  as  house-fly,  horse-fly,  bee-fly, 
bot-fly,  bottle-fly,  etc.,  etc. 

Bring  out  the  fact  that  true  flies  have  never  more  than 
two  wings.  What  kind  of  food  do  flies  like — sweet  or  sour, 
solid  or  liquid? 

When  are  flies  most  common  ?      What  do  we  do  to  keep 


68  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

them  out  of  the  house  ?  How  can  we  get  flies  to  go  out  of 
the  house  of  their  own  free  will  ?  By  darkening  the  house  and 
by  leaving  one  light  opening,  as  a  window-blind  partly  open. 
Flies  abhor  darkness  and  fly  toward  the  light-crack.  They 
will  soon  pass  out  if  it  be  a  warm  sunny  day  outside. 

Are  flies  of  any  use  to  man  ?  How  ?  Take  a  piece  of 
sticky  fly-paper  and  when  several  flies  have  become  entan- 
gled take  a  simple  magnifying  glass  and  examine  carefully. 
If  you  find  one  which  is  gray  in  color,  or  one  which  has 
small  bright  scarlet  specks  on  it,  look  at  such  a  fly  closely. 
The  gray  dust  and  scarlet  specks  will  be  found  to  be  lice 
which  live  on  the  fly. 

Did  you  ever  find  flies  under  a  board  or  stone  ?  Why  do 
not  flies  live  as  crickets,  ants,  and  beetles  do  ?  Nature  has 
given  different  tastes  and  inclinations  to  insects,  as  she  has 
to  different  races  of  men.  Some  prefer  the  dark,  damp  se- 
clusion of  the  earth,  others  the  sunny  freedom  of  the  atmos- 
phere, but  all  work  together  for  good  in  one  way  or  an- 
other. 

Repeat  the  Spider  and  the  Fly.  What  is  the  parlor  ? 
The  "winding  staircase"?  etc.,  etc. 

The  Grasshopper. 

Henry  has  just  brought  me  a  fine  grasshopper.  He 
caught  it  in  the  yard.  Are  they  easily  caught  ?  How  do 
they  move  from  place  to  place  ?  Why  do  they  move  so  ? 
Let  us  place  him  under  this  tumbler  and  we  will  watch  him. 
Can  you  tell  me  how  I  know  that  the  grasshopper  is  an  in- 
sect ?  Why  so  called?  He  has  six  legs.  His  body  is 
three-parted." 

Let  us  first  study  his  head.  Examine  the  eyes  under  this 
glass.  Are  they  compound  eyes,  like  those  of  the  dragon-fly  ? 
Examine  the  feelers  (antennae).  How  are  they  built  up? 
Look  under  the  eyes  and  see  him  move  the  lips.  See  the 
small  feelers  on  the  lower  lip.  These  are  palps.  How 
many  parts  has  the  chest  (thorax)  ?  To  which  part  are  the 


The  Grasshopper. 


fore   legs   attached  ?     What   are   attached   to   the   second 
part? 

See  how  the  hind  wings  and  hind  legs  grow  to  the  third 
part.  How  do  the  legs  compare  in  size  ?  What  other  insect 
that  we  have  studied  has  such  big  stout  hind  legs  ?  The 
cricket.  Yes,  the  cricket  has  such  legs.  How  do  the  wings 
of  -the  cricket  compare  with  those  of  the  grasshopper  in 
number,  form,  veining,  size,  and  position  when  at  rest  ? 


let  pair  of  Legs  — ' — 


1st  pair  af  Wings 
2nd  pair  of  I.cga 


Thorn* 


•2nd  pair  of  Wings 
3rd  pair  of  Legs "** 


— -  AMomai 


Tajsus 


FIG.  13.    GRASSHOPPER. 


How  many  rings  make  up  the  abdomen?  Look  closely 
at  the  egg-depositors  (ovipositors)  at  the  end  of  the  ab- 
domen. How  do  they  compare  with  the  leaflike  bodies  at 
the  end  of  the  dragon-fly  ?  See  the  small  holes  on  the  side 
of  the  abdomen.  They  look  like  a  row  of  buttons  down 
his  sides.  These  are  breathing-holes  (spiracles).  See  how 
his  abdomen  swells  as  he  breathes.  Let  us  give  him  a 
tender  piece  of  cabbage  and  see  if  he  will  eat  it. 


70  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

How  do  they  jump  ?  How  do  they  fly  ?  Can  they  walk  ? 
Do  they  fly  with  fore  or  hind  wings  principally  ?  Why  ? 

What  kind  of  insect  shall  we  call  this  ?  Straight-winged. 
Yes,  we  will  call  the  grasshopper  a  straight-winged  insect. 

Draw  the  head,  front  view,  side  view,  top  view.  Draw 
each  leg.  Draw  the  wings.  Draw  the  insect  with  wings 
spread.  Draw  him  side  view. 

Write  what  you  know  about  grasshoppers  ;  where  found, 
food,  habits,  and  describe  the  insect  as  fully  as  possible. 

Note  to  Teacher. — I  would  not  kill  and  dissect  any 
insects.  Biology  is  too  advanced  for  children  ;  besides,  it 
teaches  a  moral  lesson  to  be  kind  to  every  living  thing.  I 
would  not  go  so  far,  however,  as  to  condemn  the  study  of 
parts  of  dead  insects.  When  it  becomes  necessary  to  kill 
such  things,  do  it  by  the  shortest  and  easiest  method,  viz., 
drop  a  few  drops  of  naphtha,  gasoline,  or  benzine  on  the 
insect  and  it  will  kill  him  instantly.  I  have  seen  a  beetle 
transfixed  with  a  pin  to  a  door  struggle  and  suffer  for  days, 
while  the  children  looked  on  and  got  enjoyment  from  it. 
In  all  our  dealings  with  animals  and  children  we  should 
constantly  keep  before  us  the  fact  that  our  lessons  must 
have  not  merely  an  informational  aim,  but  above  all  they 
should  have  an  ethical  aim ;  and  when  a  child  is  constantly 
made  familiar  with  the  killing  of  living  creatures  his  better 
nature  canuot  help  being  seriously  affected  by  it. 

A   Talk  about  the   Wal'king-stick. 

I  fancy  when  you  look  at  this  slender  fellow  you  will  say  : 
"Here  is  a  creature  that  looks  like  an  insect  so  far  as  the 
legs  and  jointed  body  goes,  but  you  told  us  that  the  bodies 
of  insects  are  always  divided  into  three  parts,  and  this  one 
has  more  than  three  parts  to  his  body.  Besides,  this  creat- 
ure has  no  wings."  Well,  it  does  seem  so  at  first  sight,  but 
if  you  will  remember  that  the  legs  and  wings  are  always  at- 
tached to  the  thorax  (chest  or  middle  part)  you  will  have 
no  difficulty  in  seeing  that  this  insect  has  also  a  three-parted 
body. 


A  Talk  about  the  Walking-stick. 


He  is  long-waisted — that  is  all.  And  his  waist  is  made  of 
three  parts.  These  three  parts  have  big  names.  Beginning 
at  the  head,  they  are  called  prothorax,  mesothorax,  and 
metathorax,  but  all  we  need  to  remember  is  that  the  thorax 
has  three  parts.  In  the  insects  we  have  studied  these  parts 
are  not  so  easily  seen,  but  in  this  family  they  are  always 
easily  found. 

See  what  long  feelers  the  walking-stick  has  !  Compare 
these  feelers  with  those  of  the  katydid,  grasshopper,  and 
cricket.  You  see  they  all  have  long  feelers.  Look  at  these 
feelers  with  a  glass.  They  are  like  a  string  of  beads.  Ex- 
amine the  mouth  and  the  eyes  ;  how  f 
they  project  from  the  head.  Com- 
pare the  neck  with  that  of  the 
dragon-fly.  Compare  the  legs  with 
those  of  his  cousin,  the  grasshopper. 

The  walking-stick  can  creep  along 
very  fast,  because  his  legs  are  so 
long  and  his  body  so  slender. 

Green  ones  may  be  seen  among 
bushes  in  summer,  and  gray  ones  in 
barns,  upon  the  ceiling  and  walls. 

Sometimes  they  grow  to  be  very 
large.  One  kind  becomes  over  a 
foot  long.  The  walking-sticks  have 
many  relations  in  warm  countries. 

The  walking-sticks  are  harmless 
creatures,  but  they  have  many  ene- 
mies. Nature  has  made  them  look 
so  much  like  hay  or  twigs  that  they 
can  thus  hide,  and  no  one  can  see 
them  as  they  stand  upon  the  limb  of 
a  tree. 

One  summer  I   saw  hundreds  of 
them  in  a  barn.     They  were  every- 
where, but  to   any  one  who  was   not  looking  for  them  it 
would  have  been  impossible  to  realize  how  many  were  there. 


FIG.  14. 


72  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

They  were  just  the  same  color  as  the  hay,  and  looked  like 
it.  They  could  only  be  seen  when  they  began  to  move. 

Suggestions.— Draw  the  walking-stick. 

Write  a  careful  description  of  it. 

Write  all  you  have  learned  of  its  life-history. 

Compare  it  with  the  grasshopper  and  the  katydid.  Draw 
a  contrast. 

Compare  and  contrast  the  walking-stick  with  the  butter- 
fly, beetle,  and  dragon-fly. 

Write  an  imaginary  conversation  between  a  walking  stick 
and  a  grasshopper. 

Write  a  story  of  a  walking-stick  who  escaped  from  its 
enemies  because  of  its  ability  to  hide. 

Questions. — If  you  were  going  to  give  a  walking-stick 
one  pair  of  wings,  where  ought  they  to  be  fastened  on  ? 

Where  if  you  gave  two  pairs  ?  Did  you  ever  see  an  in- 
sect with  wings  on  the  first  section  of  the  thorax  (pro- 
thorax)  ?  What  other  wingless  insects  have  you  seen  ? 
Where  were  they  ?  Why  does  nature  give  some  insects 
wings  and  others  none  ?  If  he  had  wings,  what  kind  would 
they  be?  Yes,  they  would  be  straight  like  those  of  his 
cousins,  the  grasshopper  and  katydid.  Make  a  list  of 
winged  and  wingless  insects  you  have  seen. 

A  Child's  Story. 

A  pretty  green  walking-stick  lived  in  a  bush.  He  was  very  lean 
and  long,  and  he  looked  very  hungry.  He  was  not  hungry, 
for  he  had  plenty  to  eat,  but  he  could  not  get  fat.  When  he 
heard  the  birds  coming,  he  just  put  his  feet  together  and 
stood  still.  The  birds  could  not  see  him,  because  he  was  green 
and  looked  just  like  a  little  stem.  JENNIE  CARSON. 

Measurements. — The  walking-stick  is  four  inches  long. 
His  legs  are  two  inches  long.  All  of  his  legs  are  twelve 
inches  long.  If  his  legs  were  placed  end  to  end,  they  would 
reach  a  foot  long.  His  body  is  twice  as  long  as  one  leg. 
The  feelers  are  three  inches  long.  There  are  nine  joints  in 
the  abdomen,  and  three  in  the  thorax.  If  I  add  one  for 
the  head,  there  will  be  thirteen  joints  in  his  whole  body. 


The  Cricket. 

The  Cricket. 
I  will  introduce  you  to  the  grasshopper's  cousin. 


73 


We 

found  this  little  creature  under  the  stone  in  the  yard.  What 
is  its  name  ?  Describe  it  carefully.  Are  crickets  easy  to 
catch  ?  How  do  they  go  ?  How  do  you  catch  them  ?  Do 
they  bite?  Do  they  sting?  Can  they  jump  as  far  as  a 
grasshopper  can  ?  See  how  nature  has  fitted  them  for 
jumping.  Their  hind  legs  are  very  much  longer  than  their 


FIG.  15. — «,  YOUNG  CRICKET  ;  6,  FULL-GROWN  CRICKET. 

fore  legs.  Are  their  wings  like  those  of  the  grasshopper? 
They  are  shorter.  Can  crickets  make  a  noise  ?  WTe  say 
that  they  chirp.  This  cricket  is  black.  Let  us  put  a  living 
cricket  under  a  glass  and  watch  him.  See  how  he  moves 
his  jaws. 

Crickets  feed  on  tender  roots  and  leaves.  Mole-crickets 
often  do  much  harm  to  the  roots  of  plants,  because  they  eat 
them,  and  sometimes  this  kills  the  plants.  Mole-crickets 


74  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

have  large  claws,  so  that  they  can  dig  down  into  the  earth 
just  as  a  mole  does.  See  the  short  stiff  hairs  on  his  hind 
legs.  If  you  look  closely,  you  will  find  on  one  of  his  wing- 
veins  some  short  stiff  hairs  also.  When  he  scrapes  his  leg 
across  his  wing,  we  hear  the  noise  which  we  call  chirping. 
Put  the  cricket  into  this  dark  box  and  perhaps  he  will  chirp 
for  us.  Some  say,  "Te-weety  te-weet"  some  say,  "Katy-did, 
katy-did" 

The  crickets,  katydids,  grasshoppers,  and  walking-sticks, 
all  belong  to  the  same  family,  because  their  wings  are 
straight.  They  are  straight-winged  insects.  We  will  call 
them  cousins. 

Let  us  write  down  what  we  have  learned  about  the 
cricket. 

Sometimes  crickets  live  about  houses.  In  old  houses 
they  often  live  around  the  fireplace.  Did  you  ever  hear 
the  story  of  Old  Dame  Hicket  ? 

"Old  Dame  Hicket 
Had  a  wonderful  cricket 

That  lived  in  a  hole  by  the  fender, 
And  when  he  came  out 
He  would  dance  all  about 
On  his  hind  legs,  so  tall  and  so  slender. 

"  This  pleased  the  old  dame, 
So  she  gave  him  a  name, 

Little  Peter  it  was,  you  must  know; 
And  she  fed  him  with  crumbs 
'Twixt  her  fingers  and  thumbs, 

Then  into  his  hole  he  would  go.rt 

Was  this  a  true  story  ?  Draw  the  cricket  as  you  think  he 
looked  in  this  story. 

The  poem  To  an  Insect,  by  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes,  and 
Dickens'  Cricket  on  the  Hearth,  may  be  read  to  the  class. 

The  Bee  Family. 

To-day  we  will  study  a  new  family  of  insects.  These  are 
busy  little  creatures,  always  working.  They  are  great  build- 


The  Bee  Family. 


75 


ers,  too.  They  are  bees,  and  are  cousins  to  the  wasps,  hor- 
nets, and  ants.  Do  you  see  how  their  bodies  are  divided  ? 
They  are  very  different  from  the  beetles  and  dragon-flies, 
and  yet  they  have  many  features  in  common  with  them. 

Their   bodies   are   jointed — how    many    parts?      Three: 
head,   thorax,  and   abdomen.      See  the  long  slender  neck 


13^s. 


FIG.  16. 

which  joins  the  thorax  of  the  wasp  to  his  abdomen.  How 
many  wings  has  the  bee  ?  How  do  the  fore  wings  compare 
with  the  hind  ones  ?  See  if  you  can  find  the  hooks  which 
fasten  the  hind  and  fore  wings  together.  Compare  the 
wings  with  those  of  the  beetle,  butterfly,  and  dragon-fly  (i) 
in  shape,  (2)  in  size,  (3)  in  structure,  (4)  in  texture.  We 


76  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

call  bees  membrane-winged  insects,  just  as  beetles  are  shell- 
winged,  and  butterflies  scale-winged. 

Compare  also  the  feet,  heads,  and  shape  of  the  different 
parts  of  the  body  with  the  same  portions  of  other  insects 
you  have  examined. 

Take  a  large  wasp  or  bee  and  examine  its  mouth  care- 
fully. The  dried  specimens  collected  last  summer  may  be 
rather  hard  to  examine,  but  a  little  care  will  show  that 
these  insects  have  a  very  peculiar  mouth  fitted  both  for 
suction  and  for  chewing.  This  is  different  from  the 
butterfly  with  its  long  trunk  for  sucking,  and  the  beetle  with 
his  powerful  jaws.  Examine  the  sting  in  the  end  of  the 
body,  and  if  you  have  a  microscope  pull  out  the  sting  and 
examine  carefully.  The  feet  will  also  be  found  to  differ 
greatly  from  those  of  the  beetle,  dragon-fly,  and  butterfly. 
Count  the  rings  in  the  body. 

Tell  all  you  know  about  bees ;  their  food,  homes,  and 
manner  of  living.  Find  out  more  by  inquiring  and  reading. 
The  wonderful  government  of  the  hive,  the  acts  of  the 
drones,  the  workers,  and  queens,  will  inspire  interest  for 
many  days. 

Wasps. 

Nests  of  mud-wasps  are  very  common.  The  large  ovoid 
homes  of  the  paper-wasp  are  not  uncommon  in  brush  and 
open  places.  Samples  of  these  as  well  as  of  the  honeycomb 
kind  can  be  obtained  to  exhibit  before  the  class.  Tell 
them  how  the  wasp  bites  off  wood,  gnaws  it,  so  to  speak, 
chews  it  up,  and  mixes  it  with  saliva  to  form  paper.  It  is 
from  the  wasp  that  mankind  learned  how  to  make  paper. 
Cut  open  the  wasp  nest  and  show  the  beautiful  inside  ar- 
rangement. Talk  about  hornets,  yellow-jackets,  and  other 
insects  of  this  family.  It  is  the  most  useful  to  man  of  all 
the  insect  tribes. 

Talk  about  honey  as  a  food;  how  it  is  made,  its  great 
importance  in  the  ancient  world,  when  it  took  the  place  of 
sugar.  Tell  how  the  wax  is  an  excretion  from  the  sides  of 


Ants.  77 

the   bee  ;    that  it  occurs  in  the  form  of  scales,  which  the 
bee  picks  off  to  use  in  laying  up  the  walls  of  the  cells. 

Ants. 

Remark  how  much  they  resemble  wasps.  Ordinarily 
they  have  no  wings.  But  some  kinds  have  wings.  Ask  the 
class  how  ants  live.  Do  they  make  a  comb,  as  the  bees  do  ? 
Do  they  build  homes  of  mud  or  paper,  as  the  wasps  do  ? 
Describe  ant-hills.  How  large  is  the  largest  ant-hill  you 
ever  saw  ?  Are  all  ants  black  ?  Can  they  sting  ?  Do  ants 
ever  get  into  houses  ?  What  food  do  they  like  best  ? 

Bring  out  the  extraordinary  strength  of  ants;  how  they 
can  carry  many  times  their  own  weight.  How  they  seem 
to  talk  with  one  another  by  touching  their  antennae  to- 
gether. 

Tell  the  children  that  there  is  an  acid  (formic  acid)  in 
ants.  The  natives  of  Brazil  make  ants  into  salad.  They 
esteem  the  sour  taste  of  ants  as  a  great  delicacy. 

•Note  to  the  Teacher. — There  is  no  better  chance  to 
teach  lessons  on  morals,  neatness,  industry,  thrift,  manage- 
ment, economy,  etc.  than  is  afforded  by  using  the  bee 
family  as  a  model.  Man  owes  more  to  bees  than  to  any 
other  insect,  if  we  except  the  silkworm. 

Mention  may  be  made  of  the  "  ant-lion,"  an  insect  which 
constructs  a  den  into  which  the  ants  sometimes  go  and  are 
caught.  Allusion  may  also  be  made  to  "  ants'  cows,"  i.e., 
plant-lice  which  yield  a  drop  of  sweet  fluid  when  ants  touch 
them. 

The  famous  ant-eater  may  also  be  described. 

Review  lessons  to  test  the  memory  and  to  give  language 
and  number  drills  may  follow  these  lessons  on  bees,  wasps, 
and  ants. 

NOTE  TO  TEACHERS. — With  each  new  insect  it  is  always 
advisable  to  introduce  comparisons  between  the  insect  on 
hand  and  those  previously  studied.  In  this  way  the  mem- 
ory of  past  lessons  is  refreshed,  and  essential  likenesses  and 
differences  are  more  strongly  emphasized. 


7  8  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

Talk  about  the  Dragon-fly. 

Children,  the  beetle  with  its  hard  shell-like  wings,  and  the 
butterfly,  whose  wings  are  covered  with  beautiful  scales,  has 
been  in  our  class-room.  Now  I  am  going  to  show  you  an  in- 
sect which  is  a  great  friend  to  boys  and  girls,  but  some  boys 
and  girls  are  afraid  of  it.  Can  any  of  you  tell  me  what  it  is  ? 
"A  bee,  because  it  gives  honey  and  stings."  No,  not  this  time. 
This  is  an  insect  which  goes  about  always  doing  good,  killing 
the  insects  which  harm  us,  but  we  often  say  very  bad  things 
about  him.  Here  it  is.  What  is  it  ?  "A  darning-needle." 


FIG.  17.— DRAGON-FLY. 

"A  snake-feeder."  "A  dragon-fly."  Yes,  it  is  a  dragon-fly. 
Did  you  ever  hear  what  mean  things  people  tell  of  him  ? 
"They  say  that  dragon-flies  will  sew  up  your  ears."  Yes, 
that  is  what  they  say,  but  it  is  not  true.  I  want  you  to  know 
and  love  this  beautiful  insect,  for  he«does  us  much  good,  as 
you  shall  see. 

Only  see  what  a  large  head  he  has,  and  what  a  small  neck. 
Look  at  his  great  eyes.  Each  eye  is  as  large  as  all  the  rest 
of  his  head.  If  you  look  closely,  you  can  see  that  his  eyes 


Animals.  79 

are  like  those  of  the  butterfly;  those  were  made,  you  will 
remember,  of  a  great  many  little  eyes. 

Into  how  many  parts  is  this  insect  divided?  How  does 
the  abdomen  compare  with  the  abdomen  of  the  butterfly  ? 
The  beetle  ?  How  many  rings  in  the  abdomen  ?  Where 
is  the  end  of  the  abdomen?  What  is  the  shape  of  the 
abdomen  ?  How  does  it  compare  in  length  with  the  chest 
(thorax)?  How  do  the  wings  differ  from  those  of  the 
butterfly  ?  The  beetle  ?  The  wings  are  like  lace  or  netting. 
How  long  is  the  fore  wing  ?  Hind  wing  ?  How  wide  is  the 
fore  wing  ?  Hind  wing  ?  Draw  the  insect  back  view,  front 
view,  side  view.  Draw  a  fore  wing  exactly.  Notice  the 
beautiful  veining  of  the  wings.  Examine  the  legs  carefully. 
Notice  the  little  feet.  Did  you  ever  see  dragon-flies  differ- 
ent from  this  one?  Yes,  some  have  shorter  bodies  with 
brown  bands  across  the  wings,  and  some  are  much  smaller 
and  deep  bright  blue  in  color. 

Notice  the  colors  of  the  wings  when  held  sidewise  in  the 
sunlight.  This  is  somewhat  like  the  colors  of  a  soap-bubble. 

Natural  History. — The  eggs  are  laid  in  the  water,  where 
they  hatch  out  into  a  large  larva.  The  larvae  feed  on  wig- 
glers  (mosquitoes),  and  when  ready  to  come  out  of  the  water 
they  split  open  and  escape  pretty  much  as  the  mosquito 
and  the  cicada  do.  Then  they  fly  away  in  search  of  more 
mosquitoes.  It  is  claimed  that  during  their  entire  life  the 
dragon-flies  live  on  mosquitoes.  That  is  why  they  are  such 
friends  to  man,  and  that  is  why  they  like  to  fly  around  the 
water  where  mosquitoes  are  to  be  found. 

Did  you  ever  watch  a  dragon-fly  as  he  flew  along  ?  How 
he  darts  forward  and  then  pauses  in  mid-air,  seeming  to  be 
at  rest  while  his  gauze  wings  beat  the  air  at  a  truly  wonder, 
ful  rate. 

Language  Lessons. — I  saw  a  big  dragon-fly.  A  boy  said 
he  would  sew  up  my  ears.  The  dragon-fly  has  four  wings. 
The  beetle  has  four  wings.  The  dragon-fly  cannot  dig  in 
the  dirt  like  a  beetle.  If  he  dug,  he  would  tear  his  wings. 
The  butterfly  cannot  dig.  The  dirt  would  scrape  the  dust- 


8o  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

scales  from  her  wings.  The  beetle  can  dig  in  the  dirt. 
The  dragon-fly  is  five  inches  long.  The  wings  are  long 
and  thin.  The  eyes  are  big.  His  neck  is  like  a  little  string. 
I  should  think  his  head  would  come  off.  There  are  two 
green  stripes  on  his  chest.  His  legs  are  bent.  He  has 
three  tails.  He  has  nine  rings  to  his  abdomen.  His  abdo- 
men is  long  like  a  needle. 

Number  Lessons. — i.  A  dragon-fly  ate  6  mosquitoes  for 
breakfast,  5  more  for  dinner,  and  4  more  for  supper  ;  how 
many  did  he  eat  that  day  ? 

2.  There  are  9  rings  in  the  abdomen  of  a  dragon-fly  ; 
how  many  rings  in  5  dragon-flies  ? 

3.  A   dragon-fly's   body   was    2    inches   longer   than  its 
fore  wing,  and  its  fore  wing  was  2\  inches  long  ;    how  long 
was  the  fly  ? 

4.  A  dragon-fly  flew  6  rods  in  2  seconds  ;  how  far  did 
he  go  in  i  minute  ? 

5.  How  far  would  he  go  in  5  minutes. 

6.  One  eye  has  12,500  parts  ;    how  many  in  both  eyes  ? 

7.  How  many  more  antennae  (feelers)  has  a  beetle  than 
a  dragon-fly  ? 

8.  A  butterfly  lent  one  of  her  feelers  to  a  dragon-fly  ;  how 
many  feelers  had  she  left  ? 

QUESTIONS  ON  THE  DRAGON-FLY  (A  NET-WINGED  INSECT). 

Teacher  (showing  the  insect). — Children,  what  is  the 
name  of  this  animal  ? 

George. — It  is  a  darning-needle. 

Helen. — It  is  called  a  snake- feeder. 

Willie. — It  is  a  dragon-fly. 

Teacher. — Why  do  they  call  it  a  darning  needle  ? 

Mary. — Because  it  will  sew  up  our  ears. 

Teacher. — That  is  a  very  wrong  thing  to  say  about  this 
beautiful  insect.  It  does  not  do  such  a  thing  as  that.  Some 
call  it  a  darning-needle  because  its  body  is  long  and  slender. 

George. — Where   I  used  to  live  they  called  them 
spindles,  or  snake-spindles. 


Animals.  81 

Teacher. — Where  do  the  dragon  flies-live  ? 

Willie. — They  fly  around  where  there  is  water. 

Teacher. — That  is  because  they  feed  on  mosquitoes.  How 
do  you  know  that  this  creature  is  an  insect? 

Helen.— It  has  six  legs  and  there  are  three  parts  to  the 
body. 

Teacher. — Describe  the  head,  Mary. 

Mary. — The  head  is  large.  It  has  two  big  eyes  bigger 
than  the  rest  of  the  head. 

Teacher. — How  is  the  head  fastened  to  the  body  ? 

George. — By  a  small  cord.  The  head  is  very  loose  and 
will  turn  about. 

Teacher. — Describe  the  chest  or  thorax,  Charlie. 

Charlie. — The  chest  is  twice  as  large  as  the  head.  The 
six  legs  are  on  the  lower  side.  The  four  wings  are  on  the 
upper  side. 

Teacher. — What  do  the  wings  look  like  ? 

AIL—A,  net. 

Teacher. — Has  the  dragon-fly  any  balancers  like  the 
house-fly  ?  How  many  joints  in  the  abdomen  ?  Describe 
the  tail.  Notice  the  short  hairs  on  the  legs.  Have  any  of 
you  ever  seen  larger  ones  ?  Smaller  ones  ?  Let  us  collect 
different  kinds  for  our  collection. 

THE   FISH. 

I  have  found  it  very  interesting  to  take  almost  any  living 
thing,  such  as  a  fish  or  a  canary  bird,  bring  it  to  the  school- 
room in  its  globe  or  cage,  and  let  the  children  study  the  liv- 
ing creature.  There  is  vastly  more  interest  awakened  in 
observing  anything  alive  than  the  same  thing  dead.  The 
crickets,  bees,  and  other  insects  are  always  better  studied 
under  a  glass  when  living  than  when  pinned  out  stiff  in 
death  upon  a  cork.  We  must  not  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that 
it  is  nature  we  are  studying  rather  than  science  as  such. 

Material. — i.  If  possible  have  a  living  fish  swimming  in 
a.  dish,  A  goldfish  is  good.  Goldfish  can  be  hired  in  the 


82  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

city,  but  if  boys  can  catch  a  fish  in  the  brook  it  is  much 
better.  My  boys  caught  a  pike  by  breaking  the  ice  and 
getting  him  with  a  small  dip-net.  This  is  easily  done  when 
the  water  is  frozen  over,  because  the  fishes  then  are  more  or 
less  torpid. 

2.  Some  dead  fish  :  These  may  be  had  at  the  market,  and 
even  dried  herring  and  salted  mackerel  are  useful. 

3.  An  entire  skeleton  or  a  portion  of  a  skeleton  of  some 
fish.     The  skeleton   of  a  mackerel  is  easily  obtained  by 
scalding  and  carefully  separating  the  flesh  from  the  bones. 

4.  Any  other  parts  of  fishes  that  may  be  procured  easily. 


FIG.  18. — GOLDFISH. 


Observations.— i.  On  the  living  fish.  2.  On  the  dead 
one. 

Notice  the  shape  of  this  fish.  Draw  it.  The  color. 
How  does  he  move  the  mouth?  The  fins?  How  many 
fins  ?  Where  are  they  situated  ?  How  does  he  swim  ? 

(Many  will  say,  "With  the  fins,"  but  careful  observation 
will  soon  disclose  the  fact  that  the  fins  serve  to  balance  the 
fish  in  the  water,  while  it  is  the  tail  fin  which  propels  the 
fish  through  the  water.) 

Bring  out  the  fact  that  the  fish  has  fins  to  correspond 
with  fore  legs  and  hind  legs. 

How  is  the  tail  divided  ?  Draw  it.  Are  the  parts  equal 
qr  unequal? 


Animals.  83 

We  call  the  fin  on  the  back  the  dorsal  fin,  and  the  one 
below  near  the  tail  the  anal  fin.  Point  out  the  dorsal  fin 
on  the  dead  fish.  Point  out  the  anal  fin.  Notice  the  parts 
of  the  fins.  See  the  fine  spines  which  form  their  framework. 
How  many  spines  in  the  dorsal  fin  ? 

We  call  the  tail  fin  the  caudal  fin.  Compare  the  caudal 
fins  of  these  fishes.  Sketch  them. 

Measure  the  fish  from  the  tip  of  the  head  to  the  base  of 
the  tail.  What  part  of  this  length  is  head  ? 

Open  the  mouth  of  the  dead  fish  several  times.  See  how 
the  bones  and  gill-covers  move.  Is  his  mouth  large  or 
small  when  compared  with  the  size  of  his  body  ?  Open  the 


FIG.  19.— PERCH. 

mouth  wide  and  feel  the  teeth.  Are  there  many  or  few  ? 
How  do  they  point  ?  Where  are  they  placed  ? 

Now  see  the  eyes.  Can  the  fish  wink  ?  Has  he  eyelids  ? 
Why  not  ?  Can  he  move  the  eyes  around  and  look  upward, 
right,  left,  and  downward  as  we  can  ?  Why,  then,  do  fishes 
swim  in  a  zigzag  manner  ?  Try  to  move  the  dead  fish's  eye. 
Can  you  push  it  so  as  to  make  it  turn  as  our  eyes  turn  ? 

Can  a  big  fish  catch  a  smaller  one  easily  when  the  smaller 
one  goes  swimming  in  this  way  from  side  to  side  ? 

Lift  up  the  gill-covers.  See  the  dark-red  fringes  of  the 
gills.  Put  your  pencil  into  the  fish's  mouth  and  out  at  the 
gills,.  That  is  the  way  water  goes  as.  the  fish  breathes, 


84  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

The  fish  does  not  swallow  the  water,  but  merely  allows 
the  water  to  pass  through  so  as  to  wash  the  dark-red  fringes 
of  the  gills.  That  keeps  fresh  water  near  the  gills  all  the 
time,  and  so  the  impure  matters  of  the  blood,  escaping  into 
the  water  from  the  gills,  are  quickly  washed  away.  Pure 
oxygen  in  the  water  enters  the  fish's  blood  through  the 
gills  and  purifies  it. 

If  we  will  leave  the  fish  in  this  water  a  long  while,  he  will 
begin  to  pant,  or  move  his  gills  very  fast.  He  will  come  to 
the  surface  and  swim  about  restlessly.  That  is  because  the 
water  has  lost  most  of  its  free  oxygen.  If  we  did  not  change 
the  water,  the  fish  would  soon  die.  Why  do  not  fishes  in 
the  brooks  and  ponds  die  ?  The  plants  growing  in  the 
water  take  up  the  impure  matters  and  give  off  oxygen  to 


FIG.  20. 

the  water,  and  fishes  give  to  the  plants  just  what  they  need 
for  their  food. 

Scrape  off  a  scale  from  the  fish.  See  the  little  socket 
where  it  grew.  See  the  markings  like  those  on  a  shell ; 
notice  how  they  lap  over  each  other  like  the  shingles  on  a 
roof.  See  how  nicely  nature  made  the  fishes  to  swim  in  the 
water.  How  easily  their  narrow  pointed  bodies  cleave  the 
water. 

Let  us  now  see  how  a  fish  is  built  up.  Here  is  a  skeleton. 
See  the  parts  of  the  backbone  (vertebrae).  Count  them,  and 
also  count  the  ribs.  The  fish  has  a  backbone  (spine),  as 
we  have.  Note  how  it  joins  the  skull.  See  how  carefully 
nature  protects  the  spinal  cord  by  its  position,  (It  is  not 


Animals.  85 

desirable  for  younger  pupils  to  dissect  a  fish.  The  anat- 
omy is  too  complicated  to  do  that.  Older  pupils  may 
dissect,  but  in  a  large  school  I  would  not  recommend  it.) 

I  conclude  this  lesson  with  a  sample  of  pupils'  work  on 
the  pike,  to  which  I  have  alluded. 

The  fish  lived  in  the  school-room,  having  the  water  re- 
peatedly changed,  but  at  length  it  died,  owing  to  some  hurt 
received  when  captured. 

After  death  we  studied  it  as  above  outlined,  and  made  it 
the  theme  for  drill  in  language,  punctuation,  capitalization, 
and  paragraphing.  The  following  is  one  of  the  pupil's 

compositions  : 

The  Pike. 

(Description  by  Anna  Hess,  8th  grade,  public  school,  Chatham,  N.  J.) 

The  pike  is  a  long  slender  fish.  This  one  is  about  seven 
inches  long.  It  is  shaped  somewhat  like  a  cigar.  Its  color 
is  of  a  dirty  greenish  white  changing  to  gray.  There  are 
eleven  black  or  dark-brown  stripes  across  the  back. 

The  six  fins  are  very  delicate  pink  in  color.  They  move 
backward  and  forward  in  the  water,  and  so  balance  the  fish 
not  to  let  him  tip  over. 

The  bright  eyes  are  on  the  sides  of  the  head.  They  are 
very  large  and  they  project  from  the  sides  of  the  head.  The 
fish  has  no  eyelids.  He  does  not  need  any.  The  water 
washes  the  eyes,  and  so  saves  having  tears  and  lids.  A  fish 
has  no  ears,  but  there  is  a  round  spot  back  of  the  eyes. 
That  is  the  ear-drum.  The  pike-scales  are  very  small  and 
thin.  The  fishes  do  not  like  water  unless  it  is  fresh. 

The  fish  acts  nervous  when  the  water  gets  stale,  just  as 
boys  do  when  the  air  in  the  school-room  is  bad. 

The  Clam-shell  (a  Special  Expedient). 

Note  to  the  Teacher. — It  is  not  well  to  pursue  the  same 
plan  with  every  lesson.  The  manner  should  be  varied  as 
much  as  the  matter.  As  one  way  to  vary  the  manner  of 
giving  the  lesson  the  following  is  suggested  :  Let  the  thing 
in  question  be  a  shell — say  a  clam-shell.  Let  the  teacher 


Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 


SUGGESTIONS  TO  TEACHER  FOR  FURTHER  LESSONS. 

1.  Let  pupils  draw  the  clam-shell  open  and  closed,  exte- 
rior and  interior. 

2.  Compare  clam-shell  with  that  of  a  fresh  water  mussel. 

3.  Compare  clam,  mussel,  etc.,  with  oyster-shell. 

4.  Get  the  living  clam  when  possible  and  examine  him. 

5.  Let   pupils  write  descriptions  with   the   shell   before 
them. 

6.  Also  write  a  description  from  memory. 

7.  A  comparison  of  the  above  shells  will  be  a  good  lan- 
guage lesson. 

8.  Also  the  differences  neatly  stated. 

9.  Let  them  write  what  they  find  as  to  the  habits  of  life 
of  each  of  these  animals. 

10.  Let  each  child  take  a  good  shell  and  neatly  print  the 
name  of  each  part  upon  it. 

11.  Let  them  write  the  story  of  a  clam  ;  its  autobiogra- 
phy. 

12.  Encourage  the  collection  of  shells  for  the  school  mu- 
seum.    The  pupils  will  hunt  for  land-  and  water-shells,  and 
solicit  contributions  from  people  who  have  them  and  care 
little  for  them. 

TABULAR    COMPARISON. 


Clam-shell. 

Oyster-shell. 

Razor-shell. 

Round-oval 
Lines  parallel 
Hard  and  white 
Naked 
Both  shells  alike 
Hinged  on  side 
Two  muscular  impres- 
sions 
Muscular  impressions 
white 
Sinus  pointed 

irregularly  oval 
lines  not  parallel 
softer  and  gray 
naked 
shells  not  alike 
hinged  near  end 

one  impression 

black 
sinus  irregular 

linear 
lines  parallel 
brittle,  white 
covered  with  horny  skin 
both  alike 
hinged  on  side 

two  impressions 

white 
sinus  square 

BONES.     I. 

Note  to  Teachers. — Bones  will  be  found,  and  usually  one 
will  find  its  way  to  the  teacher's  desk.  Whether  it  does  or 
not,  it  is  well  to  supply  various  kinds  of  bones.  Fresh 


Animals.  87 

Alice. — The  outside  is  round. 

Henry. — There  is  a  point  (beak)  on  the  outside. 

John. — The  edge  is  full  of  fine  notches. 

Isabel. — There  is  a  dark  purple  mark  on  the  inside. 

Hattie. — There  are  two  shining  spots  on  the  inside  near 
each  end. 

Alice. — One  side  is  sharp  like  a  knife. 

Willie. — There  are  three  little  sharp  teeth  on  the  inside 
near  the  point  (beak). 

Charlie. — There  is  a  line  near  the  edge  running  all  around 
the  shell. 

Harry. — The  line  has  an  angle  near  one  end  of  the  shell. 

Teacher. — That  is  what  I  have  in  mind.  The  lines  on 
the  outside  are  called  lines  of  growth,  because  as  the  clam 
grew  his  shell  grew  little  by  little.  The  point  on  the  out- 
side is  called  the  beak  or  umbo.  It  is  the  beginning  or  old- 
est part  of  the  shell.  The  fine  notches  around  the  edge 
help  the  clam  to  hold  the  shell  firmly  together  when  it  is 
shut.  Some  shells  have  but  little  of  the  purple  on  them, 
and  some  are  very  beautifully  colored.  The  two  shining 
spots  inside  are  where  the  strong  muscles  are  attached  to 
help  the  clam  to  pull  his  shells  together  and  hold  them  shut. 
The  sharp  knifelike  edge  on  the  back  is  called  the  hinge, 
because  it  fits  into  a  groove  on  the  other  shell  (valve).  The 
three  teeth  are  to  fit  into  three  little  sockets  on  the  other 
valve  so  as  to  hold  both  shells  firmly  together.  Do  you  see 
how  safe  the  clam  is  when  his  shell  is  shut  ? 

The  clam  cannot  leave  his  shell.  He  grows  to  it.  He 
has  a  loose  cloak  or  mantle  that  covers  him  and  grows  to 
the  inside  of  the  shell  down  to  the  line  that  runs  all  around 
near  the  edge.  The  mantle  rolls  up  behind  and  does  not 
grow  so  near  to  the  edge,  and  that  makes  the  notch  on  the 
back.  We  call  the  part  of  the  cloak  that  is  rolled  up  the 
siphon  and  the  notch  on  the  shell  a  sinus.  The  word  sinus 
means  a  bay,  and  this  is  so  called  because  it  looks  like  a  bay 
on  the  map.  The  siphon  is  important,  for  it  helps  the  clam 
to  eat  and  breathe. 


88 


Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 


examine  the  shell  thoroughly  before  school.     Let  her  notice 
something  prominent,  but  not  too  obvious,  about  the  shell. 
I  am  going  to  give  you  some  shells  to-day.     I  want  you 


FIG.  21.— THE  CLAM-SHELL.   (LizziE  WRIGHT). 
a,  Outside;  £,  inside;  c,  front  view. 

to  observe  them  very  closely.     I  see  something,  and  I  want 
you  to  try  to  find  out  what  it  is  that  I  have  in  mind. 
Mary. — It  has  fine  lines  or  ridges  on  the  outside. 


Animals.  89 

bones,  burnt  ones,  and  some  which  have  been  buried — all 
are  of  use  in  teaching  this  subject. 

Preparation. — Procure  a  chicken  leg-bone  and  three  soup- 
bones  ;  the  best  are  ordinary  marrow-bones.  One  of  the 
latter  should  be  fresh  from  the  market,  with  marrow  in  it, 
and  sawn  open  by  the  butcher  ;  the  other  may  be  obtained 
from  the  kitchen  after  soup  has  been  made.  Boil  this  sec- 
ond bone  in  strong  suds  to  remove  fat.  Scrape  off  the 
specks  of  muscle,  etc.,  and  remove  the  remains  of  marrow 
with  a  soft  cloth  on  a  stick  ;  then  get  the  butcher  to  saw 
this  bone  also.  The  third  marrow-bone  should  also  be  an 
old  one,  and  should  be  put  in  the  fire  for  half  an  hour  to 
burn  out  the  animal  matter.  The  chicken  bone  should  be 


FIG.  22. — SECTION  OF  BONE. 
s,  s,  s,  Articulating  surfaces. 

immersed  in  diluted  hydrochloric  acid,  and  left  overnight 
to  remove  mineral  matter.  When  the  above  articles  are 
ready,  they  may  be  placed  in  a  box  and  taken  to  school  for 
use. 

The  Lesson. — I.  Pass  the  raw  bone  around  the  class. 
Point  out  bone,  marrow,  smooth  covering  of  bone  (perios- 
teum), very  smooth  moist  end  of  bone  (synovial  membrane); 
notice  where  ligaments  and  tendons  join  the  bone.  Bring 
out  the  fact  that  the  marrow  is  merely  fat  stored  away  in 
the  bones  for  use. 

II.  Give  them  the  boiled  bone  to  examine.  Note  its 
form,  size,  structure  ;  that  it  is  larger  at  ends.  Why  ?  That 
it  is  softer  at  ends.  Why  ?  That  it  is  harder  and  more 


90  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

slender  at  middle.  Why  ?  Call  attention  to  the  marrow- 
cavity,  the  delicate  fibres  of  bone  at  its  ends.  Describe 
the  cavity.  Is  it  lined  with  periosteum  ?  etc.,  etc.  Draw 
figure  of  the  interior  of  bone. 

III.  Exhibit  the  burnt  bone.  The  animal  matter  is 
burnt  out ;  what  kind  of  matter  remains  ?  Exhibit  the 
chicken  bone.  The  mineral  matter  is  dissolved  out ;  what 
kind  remains  ?  Bone,  then,  consists  of  two  kinds  of  matter, 
animal  and  mineral. 

The  above  is  sufficient  for  young  children.  More  exten- 
sive lessons  may  be  made  by  calling  attention  to  the  end  of 
a  freshly  broken  piece  of  burnt  bone,  where  the  ends  of  fine 
pores  (canals)  may  be  seen.  The  effects  of  weather  and 
soil  on  bones  may  be  brought  out  by  samples  of  bone  picked 
up  on  the  ground.  Uses  of  bones  as  levers,  and  as  organs 
for  protection  of  delicate  parts.  Their  use  as  a  fertilizer, 
and  their  employment  in  arts,  may  also  be  brought  out. 
The  pupils  may  then  write  what  they  can  of  bones. 

BONES.     II. 

SOME  EASY  AND  USEFUL  DEVICES  FOR  TEACHING  THEM. 

It  is  a  fully  determined  principle  that  the  way  to  teach 
things  is  to  bring  the  things  themselves  into  the  class-room. 
This  is  opposed  to  the  usual  way,  which  gives  the  pupil  a 
book  to  study  what  some  one  else  has  seen. 

This  principle  is  well  established  in  the  teaching  of 
physics  and  chemistry.  It  is  no  less  applicable  to  physiology 
and  kindred  subjects. 

How  much  clearer  is  the  knowledge  possessed  by  a  child 
of  the  turbinal  bone  after  he  has  seen  one  and  noted  its 
convolutions.  How  much  clearer  is  his  knowledge  of  a  joint 
when  he  has  himself  put  one  together. 

The  memorizing  of  the  names  of  bones,  the  classifying 
of  various  species  of  joints,  is  proper  when  it  follows  the 
observation  of  the  things  memorized.  But  when  taught,  as 
is  usually  the  case,  purely  from  the  text,  it  results  in  a  most 


Animals. 


confusing  and  evanescent  impression  on  the  pupil's  mind. 

As  a  simple  means  for  bone  and  joint  study,  and  as  a  useful 

bit  of  apparatus  in  any  school, 
the  following  suggestions  are 
offered : 

Feet  of  Fowls. 
These   are   easily  obtained 
from  city  butcher,  or  board- 
ing-house  cook,   or    farmer's 
wife. 

I.  Give  a  short  lesson  on 
the  feet,  calling  attention  to 
scales,  their  shape,  size,  color  ; 
the  nails  ;  the  shape  and  posi- 
tions of  toes.     Pull  the  cords 
at  the  upper  end,  showing  that 
these  cords  extend  to  the  toes 
and   move   them.      This  will 
give  them  an  idea  of  the  use  of 
the  tendons. 

II.  Place  the  feet  in  a  pan, 
cover  with  water,  and  boil  for 
some  time.     Give  each   foot 

FIG.  ^.-TURKEY'S  FOOT.  thus   boiled   tQ    a   pupil>  Qr  let 

two  pupils  work  together.  If  the  feet  are  well 
cooked,  the  flesh  is  easily  removed.  Let  the 
pupils  clean  the  bones  carefully,  laying  each 
bone  by  its  mate  when  cleaned.  Place  the 
bones  on  a  card  or  board  to  dry.  When  dry, 
have  the  pupils  arrange  them  in  their  order. 
Bring  out  the  fact  that  each  bone  fits  its 
neighbor  at  the  joint.  No  other  bone  will  fit 
exactly.  Notice  that  the  bones  are  grooved 
at  the  joints  so  as  to  permit  motion  in  two 
directions  only.  This  is  therefore  called  a 
hinge-joint. 
III.  Lastly,  use  glue  or  strong  mucilage  and  have  the 


FIG.  24.— QUAII/S 
FOOT. 


Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 


FIG.  25.— DUCK'S  FOOT. 


pupils  fasten  the  bones  in  position.  Glue  the  foot  to  a 
card  or  block  ;  have  it  signed  by  the 
pupil  as  a  souvenir  of  the  work. 
Older  pupils  can  bore  the  bones  and 
wire  them. 

IV.  A  very  practical  way  of  se- 
curing the  greatest  benefit  to  the 
greatest  number,  and  having  pupils  of 
one  class  help  another,  is  to  have  the 
older  pupils  make  awls,  bore  bones, 
and  have  the  younger  pupils  use 
them  for  seat-work. 

i.  To  make  the  awls  :  Select  some 
coarse  needles  about  two  inches  long. 
Lay  a  piece  of  flat  iron  or  any  smooth 
iron  on  the  lap.  Heat  the  needle- 
point red-hot  in  an  alcohol  lamp  or 
other  flame  and  lay  it  on  the  iron 

and  strike  it  while  red-hot  with  a  hammer  ;  this  will  flatten 
the  end  or  point  like  a  chisel.  The  heating  has  removed 
the  temper.  Reheat  to  redness  and  plunge  in  cold  water 
to  retemper.  The  boys  can  whittle  out  handles  and  set  the 
school-made  awls  into  them. 

2.  Bore  the  bones  from  end  to  end  like  beads. 

3.  For  seat-work  gwe  a  child  the  bones  of  a  foot  which 
has  previously  been  bored,  and  give  him  also  needle  and 
thread  or  piece  of  fine  wire.     Ask  him  to  string  the  bones 
and  make  a  chicken's  foot  of  them.     The  feet  and  also  all 
kinds  of  wings  may  be  managed  in  like  manner. 

BONES.     III. 
I.    Wings. 

Having  eaten  the  flesh  from  the  wing  of  chicken  at 
dinner,  save  the  bones  and  boil  them  in  a  little  strong 
soap-suds  to  remove  the  grease.  These  may  be  glued  or 
wired  as  in  the  preceding  lesson.  If  the  teacher  cannot 


Animals. 


93 


find  time  for  such  work  in  school,  they  may  be  fixed  and 
mounted  on  Saturday  for  use  in  the  school  museum,  and, 
being  kept,  will  serve  for  years  in  giving  instruction  on 
bones  and  joints. 

Nothing  affords  more  interest  to  the  pupil  than  to  procure 


FIG.  26.  — SHEEP'S  FOOT. 

and  prepare  skeletons  and  parts  of  skeletons.  The  feet  of 
sheep,  of  pigs,  and  of  calves  are  obtained  for  the  asking  of 
any  butcher,  and  the  village  and  country  boys  can  tell 
where  to  find  the  bodies  of  horses,  goats,  and  other  animals 
long  since  deceased.  In  an  experience  extending  over  many 


94 


Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 


years  I  have  never  found  lack  of  material  or  lack  of  enthu- 
siasm in  pupils  as  a  reason  for  neglecting  this  kind  of  study. 
It  smacks  of  adventure.  It  is  conducting  them  into  a  field 
full  of  new  facts  and  awakens  new  interest  in  them. 

II.  Sheep's  Fore  Leg. 

Boil  the  leg  until  the  flesh  is  very  soft  and  is  easily  re- 
moved from  the  bones.     If  it  has  been  boiled  long  enough, 


FIG.  27. — HORSE  s  FOOT. 


the  bones  may  be  cleaned  by  wiping  off  the  flesh  which 
adheres.  Then  add  plenty  of  soap  to  the  water  and  boil 
the  bones.  This  will  remove  the  fat  and  render  the  bones 
white.  They  should  be  bored  and  wired. 

The   teacher  who   tries  this  alone,  or  who  requires  the 
pupils  tQ  do  so,  will  riot  regret  the.  time,  so  spent,     The 


Animals. 


95 


adaptation  of  bone  to  bone  is  as  beautiful  as  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  parts  of  a  flower. 

BONES.   IV. 

SUTURES  AND  BONES  OF  THE  SKULL  AND  FACE. 

Some  of  the  bones  of  the  skull  give  trouble  to  students. 
The  ethmoid  and  turbinal  bones  are  rarely  understood  per- 
fectly, and  I  have  found  even  medical  students  unable  to 


SkuU 


FIG.  28.— SKULL  AND  FOOT  OF  QUAIL. 


Few 
make 


point  out  the  first  of  these  two,  even  from  a  skull, 
schools  possess  human  skulls,  and  as  a  means  to 
clearer  the  study  of  skulls  the  following  is  suggested  : 

Procure  any  skull,  as  of  a  sheep,  from  the  butcher, 
him  saw  it  through  the  middle  from  front  to  back, 
give  the  skull  a  boiling  in  hot  water  with  soap  or  sal-soda  ; 
then  rinse  it  thoroughly  and  dry. 

Point  out  each  bone  and  call  attention  to  the  beautiful 
§utures  that  run  between  the  bones,     If  it  is  the  skull  of  a. 


Have 
First 


g6  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

cow,  be  sure  they  notice  that  in  lieu  of  front  teeth  the  cow 
has  a  bone  (pre-maxillary)  not  found  in  man. 

Show  the  interior  of  the  skull.  Here  the  ethmoid  and 
sphenoid  bones  are  exhibited  clearly,  and  the  office  of  each 
is  plainly  indicated. 

The  delicate  turbinal  bone  rolled  up  in  its  narrow  cham- 
ber and  the  long  knifelike  vomer  are  easily  found  and  form 
most  interesting  objects.  Procure  enamel  paints  and  paint 
each  bone  a  different  color,  so  that  the  shapes  and  outlines 
of  the  bones  and  the  interlacing  of  sutures  are  brought  out 
into  sharp  contrast.  After  the  paint  is  dry  label  each  bone 
and  mount  the  skull  on  a  board. 

This  will  form  a  useful  object  for  future  lessons,  a  neces- 
ary  piece  of  apparatus  made  by  pupils  while  learning  the 
subject.  Of  the  bones  not  found  in  human  skulls  nothing 
need  be  said.  The  pupils  of  the  Chatham  School  prepared 
the  skulls  of  the  cow,  pig,  dog,  and  sheep  one  year. 

An  Incident. — Last  fall  I  learned  that  a  goat  had  been 
buried  in  the  vicinity  three  years  before.  Knowing  that 
nature  had  by  this  time  done  much  toward  cleaning  the 
bones,  I  said  to  my  physiology  class  that  I  would  be  ready 
to  go  with  the  boys  any  Saturday  morning  to  dig  up  the 
goat  and  prepare  his  skeleton.  On  the  following  Saturday 
five  boys  reported  at  my  house,  and  we  set  out  for  the  grave 
of  his  goatship.  We  dug  "  BiHy  "  up,  and  having  placed 
his  bones  in  a  bag,  we  bore  him  home  in  triumph. 

After  boiling  the  bones  in  sal-soda  and  then  soaking  over- 
night in  bleaching-powder,  we  rinsed  them  in  clear  water 
and  laid  them  in  the  sun  to  dry.  The  next  day  was  spent 
in  arranging  the  bones.  One  day  each  week  we  spent  a 
half  hour  in  boring  and  fitting,  until  at  last  Billy's  bones 
were  in  position.  His  skeleton  now  adorns  the  school- 
room. Can  any  one  question  the  educational  value  of  such 
work? 

(Notice  that  only  those  who  wanted  to  go  to  the  digging 
up  went,  so,  that  the  most  objectionable  feature  was  not 
forced  upon  anybody.) 


Animals.  97 

In  arranging  the  bones  one  of  the  boys  took  a  humerus 
and  tried  to  fit  the  ball  at  its  upper  end  into  the  socket  of 
the  hip-bone.  He  came  to  me  and  said,  "  These  bones  do 
not  fit."  He  was  quite  sure  that  he  had  a  femur  instead  of 
a  humerus.  On  being  told  to  hunt  again  he  went  to  work, 
and  at  length  found  the  shoulder-blade.  This  taught  them 
that  we  are  not  made  haphazard.  There  is  method  in  the 
way  in  which  bone  is  joined  to  bone.  The  child  who 
catches  a  glimpse  of  the  plan  of  the  Creator  in  the  structure 
of  animals  has  caught  something  worthy  to  be  treasured  in 
his  mind  and  heart. 

The  accompanying  drawings  were  made  by  pupils  of 
seventh  and  eighth  grades,  from  work  with  bones  actually 
prepared  by  the  children  themselves. 

BONES.     V. 
FOR  HIGHER  GRADES. 

In  the  preceding  articles  on  this  theme  bones  have  been 
studied  by  putting  them  into  the  hands  of  the  children^  and 
by  requiring  a  careful  study  of  each  bone,  its  shape,  size, 
structure,  and  adaptation  to  the  purpose  for  which  it  was 
intended.  The  lowest  pupils  strung  them  like  beads,  or 
glued  them  to  cards,  putting  together  the  feet  and  wings  of 
animals.  The  chicken  foot  and  wing,  the  simplest  struc- 
tures of  this  kind,  were  prepared  by  lowest  primary  or 
second-year  pupils.  Much  composition,  language,  and 
number-work  was  based  upon  them. 

The  second  step  was  with  the  foot  of  the  sheep,  and  later 
still  the  pig's  foot.  Here  again  the  work  was  made  a  basis 
for  language,  number,  and  composition,  and  the  manufac- 
ture of  their  own  drills  gave  manual  training  of  a  practical 
character. 

The  third  step,  rather  more  difficult,  consisted  in  more 
especial  work  on  skulls,  noticeably  those  of  larger  animals, 
where  the  sutures  are  marked,  and  it  was  advised  that  these 
bones  be  painted  with  enamel  paints  so  as  to  bring  out  their 


98  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

contour  the  better  and  emphasize  their  functions  and  names 
upon  the  pupil. 

The  last  step  is  the  construction  of  a  complete  skeleton. 
For  this  purpose  it  is  well  to  select  some  animal  whose 
bones  are  large  enough  to  bore  and  wire  easily.  I  have 
found  that  of  a  dog  to  be  the  best.  Nearly  every  child  can 
tell  where  a  dog  has  .been  buried.  If  long  dead,  the  remains 
can  be  disinterred  without  serious  offence  to  eyes  or  nose. 
I  would  advise,  however,  that  the  first  trial  of  this  kind  be 
made  on  a  fresh  specimen. 

The  boys  will  readily  skin  the  body  and  remove  the 
viscera.  Then  boil  the  body  in  water  for  an  hour  or  two  in 
an  old  kettle  or  boiler  out  in  the  yard.  Having  cooked  the 
dog  until  the  flesh  is  beginning  to  loosen  from  the  bones, 
take  carefully  from  the  water  and  remove  the  legs  entire. 
Give  each  pupil  i  part  to  clean,  as  a  leg,  a  head,  the  spinal 
column,  or  the  ribs.  This  is  done  without  touching  the 
flesh  if  it  is  thoroughly  cooked.  Let  each  pupil  keep  his 
bones  separate,  and  when  cleaned  have  them  boiled  a  few 
moments  in  water  with  soap,  sal-soda,  or  other  alkaline  sub- 
stance. This  removes  the  grease  and  renders  the  bones 
white  and  smooth. 

If  on  drying  they  still  smell  of  fat,  cover  with  water  in 
which  some  bleaching-powder  is  dissolved.  This  deodor- 
izes and  disinfects  the  bones. 

Let  each  pupil  bore  and  wire  his  part  as  he  did  in  the 
preceding  three  lessons.  When  all  parts  are  wired,  join 
them  together  and  mount  on  a  board  so  cut  as  to  fit  the 
back  and  mounted  on  another  board  for  a  stand.  The 
accompanying  photograph  is  that  of  a  dog  put  up  and 
mounted  by  my  physiology  class  of  1893.  The  boards 
were  sawed,  fitted,  etc.,  the  bones  bored,  wired,  etc. — in 
short,  the  whole  work  was  done  by  the  boys  and  girls. 

Of  course  work  of  this  kind  is  done  only  by  older  pupils, 
but  those  pupils  who  have  done  the  earlier  work  can  do 
this  last  with  ease.  It  requires  little  time  in  school.  The 
boiling  and  scraping  are  done  out  of  school  hours.  The 


Animals. 


99 


boring  and  wiring  may  be  planned  to  be  done  in  lesson- 
time  twice  a  week,  and  so  there  will  be  very  little  interfer- 
ence with  regular  work. 

As  to  the  preparation  of  skeletons  of  small  animals,  like 
rats,  squirrels,  frogs,  etc.,  the  bones  being  too  small  to  bore, 
glue  is  used,  but  the  specimen  is  too  frail  to  stand  long. 
Another  way  is  to  boil  very  little  and  remove  the  flesh,  but 


FIG.  29. — SKELETON  OF  A  DOG. 

keep  the  bones  all  united,  leaving  the  cartilage  to  join  the 
bones.  I  have  done  this  many  times  and  I  have  had 
success  in  this  way. 

Another  way  is  to  soak  the  body  in  strong  potash  for  two 
days,  then  rinse  and  soak  again  in  a  weaker  solution,  repeat- 
ing until  the  flesh  is  dissolved,  and  the  whole  skeleton  will 
come  out  intact.  This  method  is  used  by  naturalists  gener- 


i  oo  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

ally,  and  Principal  Hulsart,  of  Dover,  N.  J.,  has  some  beau- 
tiful specimens  of  skeletons  done  in  this  way.  Care  must 
be  taken,  however,  for  if  the  potash  is  too  strong  the  toes 
and  fingers  come  off.  I  should  rather  advise  the  use  of 
larger  skeletons,  as  it  gives  a  better  exercise  where  the 
scholars  do  the  work  entirely. 

Where  a  school  has  a  skeleton  of  a  dog,  the  subject  of 
bones  may  be  taught  almost  as  well  as  if  it  were  the  skele- 
ton of  a  man  instead.  I  have  known  pupils  to  become  so 
enthusiastic  in  the  study  of  bones  that  on  Saturdays  a  knot 
of  boys  would  gather  in  some  grove  or  meadow  to  boil  a 
dead  animal  for  next  week's  study.  For  many  useful  hints 
in  regard  to  work  with  bones,  I  am  very  greatly  indebted  to 
Dr.  E.  W.  Claypole  of  Buchtel  College,  Akron,  O.,  whose 
valuable  contributions  to  science  are  well  known. 


The  School  Museum.  101 


Chapter  KIT. 

THE  SCHOOL  MUSEUM. 

Every  school,  no  matter  what  its  grade  or  condition, 
should  have  a  museum.  In  Chapter  VII  the  matter 
of  vacation  collections  will  be  considered.  The  present 
chapter  has  rather  to  do  with  the  preparation  and  arrange- 
ment of  specimens  which  may  from  time  to  time  drift 
into  the  school-room  and  become  part  of  a  permanent 
collection. 

1.  Classification.  —  No   rigid   scientific   arrangement   is 
recommended.     Many  systems  are  in  vogue.     The  simplest 
is  to  conform  to  the  great  kingdoms  of  nature.     Thus  the 
separation  of  all  minerals,  vegetable  forms,  animal  products, 
into  groups  would  form  the  first  rude  attempt  at  classifica- 
tion.    As  the  collection  grows,  it  will  be  found  necessary  to 
sub-classify  each  of  the  above  groups.     Thus  specimens 
having  an  historic  value  may  be  separated  from  others,  no 
matter  to  what  kingdom  they  belong.     Animal  collections 
may  be  subdivided  into  insect  collections,  egg  collections, 
and  so  forth. 

2.  Preparation. — Seed  collections  are  best  arranged  in 
small  phials  or  pill-boxes.     Each  phial  or  box  should  be 
labelled,  and  the  entire  set  of  boxes  placed  in  a  larger  one,  so 
that  they  may  be  taken  down  at    a  moment's  notice.     I 
have  found  it  convenient  to  place  the  smallest  seeds  in 
homoeopathic  phials,  and  arrange  these  in  Clark's  O.  N.  T. 
thread-boxes,  larger  seeds   in  boxes  of  the  same  kind,  and 
the  thread-boxes  placed  in  a  shoe-box  just  large  enough  to 
hold  them. 


io2  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

Shells  may  be  arranged  in  a  similar  way.  Twigs  bearing 
buds  are  best  placed  upon  large  stiff  cards.  Woods  may 
be  cut  in  uniform  length  and  placed  in  boxes,  or  small 
screw-eyes  may  be  inserted,  and  they  may  be  suspended 
from  cup-hooks  in  a  lath  tacked  above  the  blackboard. 
Insects  should  be  placed  in  boxes  from  which  the  dust  is 
excluded.  Soft  animals  should  be  preserved  in  alcohol  and 
bottled. 

In  lieu  of  a  cupboard  in  which  to  keep  these  collections 
a  very  good  one  may  be  devised  by  employing  wooden 
boxes  3X2X1  foot  in  dimensions,  such  as  are  used  for  ship- 
ping soap.  Two  of  these  boxes  placed  one  above  the 
other  form  a  substantial  frame  into  which  shelves  may  be 
fitted.  A  curtain  may  be  hung  in  front,  and  the  outside 
may  receive  a  coat  of  paint  or  stain,  which  will  convert  the 
boxes  into  a  very  respectable  cabinet. 

3.  The  Curator.  — Nothing  is  more  unpleasant  than  to 
see  a  collection  of  any  kind  of  curios  covered  with  dust. 
To  keep  a  museum  in  good  order  requires  the  expenditure 
of  no  little  time  and  attention.     To  this  end  it  is  well  to 
have  from  the  outset  a  curator.     Pupils  should  be  made  to 
feel  that  this  office  is  one  of  honor.     This  will  make  them 
willing  to  hold  the  office.     Its  duties  should  be  (a)  to  label 
all  new  specimens  and  place  them  with  their  kind  ;  (b)  to 
keep   specimens   clean  from    dust  and  be  responsible   for 
them  while  in  office.     The  curator  should  take  care  that 
specimens  do  not  become  disarranged,  and  in  schools  when 
a  case  with  lock  is  provided  he  should  have  the  key. 

4.  Exhibits. — I   have   found   a  very  fertile   source   of 
specimens  to  be  the  homes  of  pupils. 

In  many  a  house  may  be  found  unique  and  often  very 
valuable  curios,  which  are  not  cared  for  by  the  owners. 

Rare  minerals,  beautiful  corals,  shells  from  distant  seas 
are  often  found  relegated  to  the  garret,  whence  they  may  be 
brought  to  become  a  perpetual  source  of  instruction  in  the 
school-room. 

A  good  way  to  obtain  such  treasures  for  the  museum  is 


The  School  Museum.  103 

to  hold  exhibits — i.e.,  let  each  pupil  bring  in  something  to 
tell  about.  A  half  hour  may  be  given  on  some  Friday 
afternoon  ;  once  a  month,  perhaps.  Each  pupil  is  requested 
to  bring  some  curio  to  school.  When  the  time  comes  for 
the  exercise,  each  one  rises  and  exhibits  what  he  has  brought. 
He  tells  something  about  it,  and  then  passes  it  around  for 
inspection. 

These  things  need  not  be  given  to  the  museum.  They 
may  be  loaned  for  the  occasion  and  taken  home  again  imme- 
diately, or  they  may  be  loaned  for  the  term.  But  a  large 
number  will  come  to  be  a  part  of  the  permanent  collection. 

Do  not  compel  pupils  to  bring  things  to  the  exhibit.  A 
few  will  do  so  at  first,  and  others  will  desire  to  do  so  later. 

An  example  of  such  an  exhibit  is  added.  During  the 
first  three  weeks  of  the  month  the  teacher  had  said  that  on 
the  last  Friday  of  the  month  they  would  hold  an  exhibit. 
She  explained  what  it  would  be,  and  requested  all  pupils  to 
bring  in  something,  at  least  for  exhibition. 

On  Friday  afternoon,  one  half  hour  before  closing-time, 
all  work  was  laid  aside,  except  the  curios,  which  were  all 
concealed  in  pockets  or  desks.  The  teacher  began  by  ask- 
ing how  many  had  brought  things  to  the  exhibit. 

Many  hands  went  up.     Some,  of  course,  had  nothing. 

John  had  a  piece  of  iron  ore.  He  rose  and  said  :  "  This 
is  a  piece  of  iron  ore  from  the  mines  in  northern 
Michigan."  He  was  asked  to  show  upon  the  map  where 
these  mines  are  located. 

Mary  said  :  "  I  have  a  piece  of  coral.  It  came  from  the 
Pacific  Ocean.  My  uncle  brought  it  home  with  him." 

Stella  had  a  piece  of  velvet  made  in  Lyons.  Martha  had 
found  a  flint  arrowhead.  Ivan  had  a  picture  of  London 
Bridge,  and  Henry  showed  a  canteen  taken  on  the  battle- 
field of  Gettysburg. 

Other  facts  were  brought  out  on  each  of  these  articles, 
and  the  lesson  was  over. 

The  teacher  had  taken  note  of  errors  in  language.  These 
would  be  taken  up  in  their  next  language  lesson.  Some 


104  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

pupils  who  had  been  unprepared  went  home  to  search  for 
things  for  next  exhibit. 

5.  General  Exhibits.  — In  connection  with  the  students' 
other  work  it  is  well  once  a  year  to  lay  out  the  school 
museum  for  public  inspection.     Many  people  will  be  inter- 
ested, and  much  valuable  material  will  find  its  way  into 
your  hands. 

6.  In  General. — All  specimens  should  be  labelled  with 
name  (if  known)  and  the  name  of  the  donor  or  leaner. 

Labels  may  be  made  after  the  following  plan  : 


Number. 

Name 

Locality 

Donated  by. 


Thus: 


Number,  25. 
Name,  White  Marble. 
Locality,  Rutland,  Vt. 
Donated  by  Mrs.  E.  T.  Bowser. 


7»  Uses. — The  museum  is  one  of  the  teacher's  most 
efficient  means  in  imparting  instruction.  Our  museum  is 
used  constantly  for  reference.  The  specimens  are  used  as 
objects  for  drawing,  language  lessons,  etc.  On  rainy  days 
it  is  often  most  useful.  Every  class  in  geography  finds 
material  for  his  lesson. 

I  once  overheard  one  boy  say  to  the  curator  :  "  Say,  Jim, 
have  you  anything  on  South  Africa  ?"  "  Jim  "  thought  a 
minute.  "Yes,"  said  he,  "we've  got  some  ivory,  a  piece  of 
gold  quartz,  and  an  ostrich  feather."  "  Gim-me-um,"  said 
the  other. 


The  School  Museum.  105 

As  a  device  for  rainy  days  it  is  sometimes  well  to  allow 
each  pupil  to  select  a  specimen  from  the  museum,  and  de- 
scribe it  orally  or  in  writing.  I  have  seen  excellent  descrip- 
tions of  starfishes,  birds'  eggs,  and  other  interesting  things 
taken  haphazard  from  the  museum. 


106  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 


Chapter  -T7t 
RAINY-DAY  LESSONS. 

LESSONS   ON   WATER. 
I.  Forms  of  Water. 

Select  a  lump  of  ice,  and  bring  it  into  the  school-room. 
What  is  this  ?  Describe  it.  Clear,  cold,  brittle.  Give  each 
child  a  piece.  What  does  it  do  when  brought  into  the 
house  ?  Why  does  it  melt  in  the  hand  ?  Let  us  hold  the 
thermometer-bulb  on  the  ice.  What  does  the  quicksilver  do 
in  the  thermometer  ?  How  far  does  it  go  down  ?  We  will 
melt  this  piece  of  ice.  What  does  the  heat  change  it  into  ? 
Is  ice "  lighter  or  heavier  than  water  ?  Will  it  float  on 
water  ?  Why  does  the  ice  stay  on  the  top  of  the  pond 
instead  of  sinking  ? 

II. 

Now  let  us  put  the  water  on  the  stove.  What  does  it  do  ? 
What  comes  off  from  this  boiling  water  ?  Let  us  put  the 
thermometer  in  this  boiling  water.  What  does  the  quick- 
silver do  now  ?  How  high  does  it  rise  ?  What  does  cold  do 
to  the  quicksilver  ?  Heat  ?  Let  us  put  just  a  little  water  in 
this  baking-powder  box,  and  set  it  on  the  stove.  We  will 
put  the  cover  on  tightly,  and  make  a  small  hole  in  the 
cover  with  an  awl.  When  the  water  boils,  what  happens  ? 
Hold  a  cold  piece  of  glass  in  the  steam  a  moment.  What 
is  on  the  glass  ?  Breathe  on  the  glass.  What  is  there  on 
the  glass  now  ?  We  call  water  when  cold  and  solid  ice  ; 
when  liquid,  as  we  usually  see  it,  water ;  when  hot,  coming 
from  boiling  water,  steam,  vapor.  In  what  form  is  water 


Lessons  on  Water.  107 

that  comes  from  our  breath  ?  What  form  is  in  the  well  ? 
Tell  me  some  other  forms  of  water.  Fog,  snow,  cloud, 
hail,  rain. 

III. 

Catch  snowflakes  on  a  piece  of  black  cloth,  and  examine 
with  a  glass.  Draw  all  the  different  forms  you  can  find. 
Darken  the  room  and  put  a  thin  piece  of  ice  over  a  hole  in 
the  shutter,  so  that  the  sunlight  can  pass  through.  Now 
look  with  the  glass.  What  do  you  see  ?  Are  these  crystals 
like  snow  crystals  ?  How  do  they  differ  ?  Get  a  sheet  of 
ice  from  some  little  brook  or  puddle  where  the  water  has 
gone  down  after  the  ice  was  frozen.  Examine  the  beauti- 
ful crystals  on  the  under  side.  Examine  crystals  forming 
on  a  cold  window.  Examine  the  steam  as  it  issues  from  a 
teakettle.  Is  it  white  just  where  it  leaves  the  spout? 
Why  not  ? 

IV.  Properties  of  Water. 

1.  Take  a  spoonful  of  sugar  and  place  it  in  a  cup  of  cold 
water.     Stir  it  a  second  and  pour  off  the  water.     Is  all  the 
sugar  there  ?     Where  has  the  rest  of  it  gone  ?     Taste  it. 
Do  you  taste  the  sugar  ?     What  has  the  water  done  to  the 
sugar  ?     Take  a  spoonful  of  sugar  and  put  it  in  a  cup  of 
hot  water.     Stir  it  also  one  second,  and  pour  off  as  before. 
Where  is  the  sugar  now  ?     Does  hot  water  dissolve  sugar 
more  or  less  rapidly  than   cold   water  ?     Water   dissolves 
substances  put  into  it. 

2.  Place  thermometer  in  freezing  water.     At  what  tem- 
perature does  it  freeze  ? 

3.  Place  thermometer  in  boiling  water.     At  what  temper- 
ature does  it  boil  ? 

4.  Place  a  small  dish  of  water  out  of  doors  on  a  cold 
night  ;  next  day  get  it  and  see  what  has  occurred.     Why 
did  the  dish  break  ?     Why  did  the  ice  bulge  ?     What  does 
water  do,  then,  in  freezing  ?     It  expands. 

5.  Hold   up  a   glass   of   water.     Look   through  it.     De- 
scribe it. 


io8  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

V. 

Question  the  class  about  the  uses  of  water,  ice,  and  snow. 
Have  some  of  the  various  poems  on  snow,  winter,  etc.,  read 
in  school.  (Lowell's  description  of  winter  in  the  Vision 
of  Sir  Launfall  is  among  the  finest  in  literature.)  Draw- 
ing snow  crystals  is  interesting  and  instructive  work. 
Frost  on  windows  is  also  very  beautiful.  An  experiment 
may  be  made  by  placing  a  tumblerful  of  cracked  ice  in  a 
warm  room.  There  will  soon  form  on  the  outside  of  the 
glass  beautiful  frost  crystals.  This  proves  the  presence  of 
water  vapor  in  the  atmosphere. 

LESSONS  ON  TEETH. 

Among  the  most  interesting  things  which  will  be  brought 
in  by  children  will  be  teeth  of  animals.  Little  children 
sometimes  bring  their  first  teeth,  and  recount  the  trials 
they  endured  in  having  them  extracted.  In  the  country  it 
is  easy  to  obtain  teeth  from  defunct  animals,  and  in  the  city 
any  dentist  will  give  you  a  handful  if  you  ask  him. 

I.  Human  Teeth  (Pig.  30,  i). 

Supply  each  child  with  as  many  as  possible.  Get  pupils 
to  describe  a  tooth  as  regards  its  parts,  body,  roots,  and 
crown.  The  enamel  and  the  dentine,  with  the  small  masses 
of  cement  adhering  to  the  ends  of  the  root,  are  all  easily 
seen  and  described.  If  you  find  among  the  teeth  one 
which  has  been  decayed,  you  can  show  to  the  pupils  the 
pulp-cavity  inside.  Differences  between  single  and  double 
teeth  should  be  brought  out. 

Tell  the  children  to  feel  their  teeth,  and  see  where  single 
and  double  are.  Tell  them  to  count  their  teeth.  If  any 
one  brings  in  a  "  milk-tooth,"  show  it  to  the  children,  and 
let  them  see  that  it  has  no  root,  etc. 

I  have  found  it  very  interesting  "  seat-work  "  to  pass 
around  a  large  handful  of  human  teeth,  and  get  the  chil- 


Lessons  on  Teeth. 


109 


dren  to  arrange  them  as  they  should  be,  placing  them  in  a 
semicircle,  thus  : 


bi 


i  <***'**'* 

'*  blbi 


m 
m 


FIG.  30.— TEETH. 

Such  busy-work  as  this  helps  to  fix  knowledge  of  teeth, 
their  names  position,  etc.,  on  the  child's  mind:  A  sample 
set  may  be  glued  to  the  inside  of  a  box  and  be  kept  for 
future  lessons. 


no  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

II.  Carnivorous  Teeth  (Fig.  30,  2). 

Carnivorous  teeth  are  best  obtained  by  securing  the  head 
of  a  cat,  dog,  or  some  other  flesh- eating  animal.  When  you 
cannot  get  such  a  skull,  the  best  thing  to  do  is  to  lay  a  liv- 
ing dog  or  cat  under  contribution.  Call  attention  to  the 
greater  number  of  incisors,  the  long  sharp  cuspids,  the 
narrow  edges  of  the  back  teeth.  It  is  easy  to  discover  the 
vast  difference  between  teeth  of  this  kind  and  those  of  a 
boy  or  girl.  Bring  out  the  adaptation  displayed  in  giving 
us  grinding  teeth,  and  giving  to  the  cat  family  teeth  for 
tearing  and  cutting.  Make  comparisons  to  show  that  both 
have  enamel,  both  have  roots,  both  have  cement  and  dentine. 

III.  Herbivorous  Teeth  (Fig.  30,  3). 

From  the  butcher  you  can  get  cow  teeth,  and  from  the 
veterinary  surgeon  horse  teeth,  and  the  farmer  or  butcher 
will  supply  you  with  sheep  teeth  and  swine  teeth  and  tusks. 

IV.   Fish's   Teeth  (Fig.  30,  4). 

Procure  a  fish  head.  Open  the  mouth.  Pass  it  around, 
so  that  all  may  see.  The  teeth  are  not  atone  in  the  jaw. 
They  are  all  over  the  sides  of  the  mouth  and  the  roof  of  it. 
They  are  upon  the  tongue,  and  away  down  the  throat. 
Run  your  finger  down  the  throat  and  feel  them.  Note 
their  shape,  their  lack  of  root,  and  their  exceeding  small- 
ness.  If  you  can  show  some  shark  teeth,  you  will  add  to 
the  interest. 

V.   Omnivorous  Teeth  (Fig.  30,  5). 

To  this  class  belong  the  teeth  of  hogs  and  bears.  Men's 
teeth  are  really  of  this  kind.  Institute  comparisons  as  be- 
fore, being  sure  to  bring  out  the  fact  that  these  teeth  are 
like  those  of  the  flesh-eaters  in  some  respects,  but  that  they 
are  like  those  of  the  herb-eaters  in  other  respects.  In 
other  words,  nature  wisely  adapted  the  teeth  of  animals  to 
eat  different  kinds  of  food.  This  adaptation  of  teeth  to 


Lessons  on  Teeth.  m 

food  is  shown  still  better  in  the  teeth  of  the  next  class  of 
animals. 

VI.   Gnawing  Teeth  (Fig.  30,  6). 

The  skulls  of  rabbits,  squirrels,  muskrats,  rats,  and  mice  are 
easily  obtained  and  are  very  interesting  to  study :  the  long 
front  teeth,  two  in  each  jaw,  the  enamel  only  on  the  outside  in 
front,  the  tops  bevelled  so  as  to  be  like  a  chisel.  These  are 
fitted  for  gnawing  through  any  hard  body.  The  side  teeth 
are  like  those  of  herb-eaters.  The  front  teeth  are  exceed- 
ingly long.  Their  roots  are  far  back  in  the  jaws.  They 
wear  off  very  fast  at  the  ends  and  grow  out  as  fast  as  they 
wear  away,  another  instance  of  nature's  care  and  foresight. 

TALK  UPON  TEETH. 

See  how  peculiar  these  teeth  are.  Are  they  the  teeth  of 
a  flesh-eater  ?  Why  not  ?  Are  they  human  teeth  ?  Why 
not  ?  Compare  them  as  regards  size,  shape,  etc.,  with  the 
teeth  of  cats  and  men.  See  how  flat  they  are  on  the  top. 
They  are  grooved.  Why  is  this  so  ?  Break  one  open  to 
show  how  it  looks  within.  It  seems  as  if  it  had  been  soft 
once  on  a  time  and  was  then  rolled  up.  Find  the  eye-teeth. 
How  do  they  compare  with  those  of  men  and  dogs  ? 

THE  EXPLORATION  OF  A  ROSE. 

One  of  the  most  entertaining  lessons  I  have  ever  enjoyed 
giving  was  an  exploration  of  a  rose.  Any  double  rose  will 
do  for  the  purpose,  but  a  cultivated  tea-rose,  such  as  is 
grown  by  florists,  is  best. 

Each  child  should  be  supplied  with  a  rose,  a  pencil  pad, 
pencil,  and,  where  possible,  a  simple  magnifying  glass.  The 
glass  is  not  absolutely  necessary,  but  it  aids  greatly  in  show- 
ing the  curious  forms  inside  the  rose.  Tell  the  children 
that  the  rose  contains  some  very  curious  things.  Teach 
them  which  are  sepals  and  which  petals,  and  then  require 
them  to  pick  their  roses  to  pieces  just  as  you  do. 

i.  Remove  the  outer  circle  of  petals.  Are  these  alike 
in  shape  ?  Draw  one  petal. 


112 


Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 


2.  Remove  the  second  circle  of  petals.     Are  these  like 
the  petals  of  the  first  circle  ?     How  do  they  differ  ?     Draw 
a  petal  of  the  second  circle  if  these  petals  show  a  tendency 
to  become  narrower. 

3.  Thus,  slowly  remove  one  circle  at  a  time,  comparing 
the  petals  with  those  of  the   rows  already  removed.     It  is 
not  necessary  to  draw  every  one,  but  only  the  petals  of 


FIG.  3o«. — EVOLUTION  OF  THE  GARDEN  ROSE. 

those  circles  which  show  a  difference.  The  interest  will  at 
once  be  aroused,  because,  as  they  approach  the  centre  of 
the  flower,  the  petals  take  on  various  curious  and  often 
fantastic  forms,  until  they  partake  of  the  nature  of  both 
petals  and  stamens.  At  last  the  petal-forms  disappear  and 
normal  stamens  are  found.  The  drawings  will  show  every 
stage  of  development  from  stamen  to  petal,  and  each  child 


A  Study  of  Celery.  1 1 3 

will  have  discovered  for  himself  a  strange  and  interesting 
fact  in  nature. 

Written  and  oral  descriptions  should  also  be  given. 

Other  double  flowers  show  still  more  wonderful  transfor- 
mations. Thus  the  flowering  almond  has  had  all  its  stamens 
changed  to  petals  and  the  pistil  often  to  a  leaf.  The  pu- 
pils, having  had  their  attention  turned  to  this  line  of  in- 
quiry, will  often  bring  in  results  of  independent  observa- 
tions in  the  same  direction.  The  water-lily  shows  every 
stage  of  petal  development  from  the  stamen. 

Having  had  the  foregoing  lesson  in  spring  before  wild 
roses  are  in  bloom,  direct  pupils  to  examine  the  single  roses 
for  beginnings  of  this  development.  They  will  often  find 
stamens  which  are  beginning  to  show  a  change  in  form  ; 
hence  the  lesson  that  all  our  cultivated  roses  are  produced 
from  single  wild  parents.  Similar  facts  may  be  introduced 
to  illustrate  the  working  of  this  law  of  evolution  in  other 
things. 

The  following  are  suggested  :  Apples  produced  from  the 
wild  crab-apple,  peaches  and  almonds  from  the  same  wild 
parents,  fantail  doves,  and  indeed  all  ornamental  doves, 
from  the  wild  pigeon. 

The  fact  that  all  cultivated  things  will  degenerate  into 
the  primitive  form  unless  cultivated  will  furnish  material 
for  lessons  in  morals. 

A  STUDY  OF   CELERY. 

Directions. — The  teacher  should  bring  in  celery,  or  have 
the  children  do  so.  If  possible,  plants  should  be  had  which 
have  roots  attached.  It  is  not  necessary  that  each  child 
have  a  whole  plant.  One  leaf  with  its  long  petiole  is 
sufficient  for  each. 

The  lesson  on  the  gentian  introduced  the  pupils  to  plant- 
life  as  a  unit.  They  have  seen  the  roots,  stems,  leaves, 
flowers,  etc.  The  object  of  this  lesson  on  celery  is  to  show 
the  children  how  some  plants  are  built  up. 


Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 


FIG.  31.— ENTIKE  CELERY  PLANT, 


A  Study  of  Celery.  115 

I  am  aware  that  there  are  people  who  will  shake 
their  heads  and  declare  that  to  give  such  work  as  "  struc- 
tural botany  "  in  a  primary  room  is  the  acme  of  folly.  In 
reply  I -have  but  to  say  that  the  "structural  botany"  in  this 
outline  is  nothing  more  that  what  may  be  seen  with  the 
naked  eye. 

I  introduce  Fig.  32  merely  to  furnish  the  teacher  with 
something  to  put  on  the  board  in  case  she  wants  to  show 


FIG.  32. — CROSS-SECTION  OF  CELERY,  SHOWING  STRUCTURE. 

the  children  how  a  thin  slice  of  celery  looks  under  the  mi- 
croscope, for  I  judge  that  few  schools  are  supplied  with 
that  very  useful  instrument. 

The  lesson  may  be  given  without  any  glass  whatever,  and 
I  am  sure  that  the  child  will  be  led  to  discover  something 
of  the  way  nature  builds  up  her  organisms.  The  gentian 
is  too  small  a  plant  to  dissect  in  this  way,  but  celery  is 


n6  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

large,  coarse,  and  tender.  It  is  easily  cut,  and  it  shows  its 
structure  very  readily  to  the  naked  eye. 

The  Lesson. — Talk  about  the  plant,  its  name,  taste, 
smell;  its  uses,  i.e.,  as  a  food,  medicine,  etc.;  its  history, 
i.e.,  how  it  was  formerly  called  "  smellage,"  and  how  people 
used  to  carry  bunches  of  it  to  church  to  smell  of  during 
three-hour  sermons. 

Find  out  how  it  is  planted,  what  soil  it  affects,  how  it  is 
cultivated,  how  it  is  cooked  or  prepared  for  the  table,  etc. 
Note  the  fibrous  roots,  the  short,  hard,  woody  stem,  and  the 
ridges  upon  the  leaf-stems.  Bring  out  the  number  and  ar- 
rangement of  leaflets  (ternately  pinnate).  Tell  pupils  that 
the  whole  mass  of  leaflets  makes  up  one  leaf.  Then  such 
questions  as  the  following  may  be  put  : 

1.  Each  leaf  has  how  many  parts  ? 

2.  Each  part  has  how  many  parts  ? 

3.  Each  of  these  last  parts  is  how  divided  ? 

4.  Are  the  divisions  all  alike  ? 

5.  Are  the  branches  of  the  foot-stalk  all  equal  in  length  ? 

6.  How  long  are  the  side  branches  ? 

7.  How  long  is  the  middle  part  ? 

8.  How  far  do  the  ridges  run  up  the  stem  ? 

9.  Are  the  ridges  alike  all  the  way  ? 

10.  Do  the  ridges  ever  run  together  ? 

1 1.  How  does  the  inner  side  of  the  celery-stem  differ  from 
the  outer  side  ? 

12.  What  color  is  this  celery  ? 

13.  Is  it  alike  throughout? 

14.  Why  does  it  vary  in  color  ? 

15.  Why  is  it  more  brittle  near  the  base  ? 

16.  How  does  the  farmer  make  it  so? 

17.  What  do  they  call  this  ? 

18.  Yes  ;  they  call  it  bleaching  the  celery. 

19.  Why  does  covering  the  stalks  make   them  so  white 
and  tender  ? 

20.  What  makes  the  tops  turn  green  ? 

31,  Do  plants  kept  in  the  dark  turn  white  ? 


A  Study  of  Celery*  1 1 7 

22.  Did  you  ever  see  potatoes,  onions,  and  turnips  which 
have  sprouted  in  dark  cellars  in  the  winter  ? 

23.  How  did  they  look  ? 

24.  Taste  of  the  white  end  and  of  the  green  leaf  an<l 
stem.     How   do   they  differ  in   taste  ?      How   in  texture 
(toughness)  ? 

25.  The  sunlight  has  done  what  to  the  tops  of  the  celery? 

26.  Break  the  stem.     Is  it  brittle  ? 

27.  Does  it  break  with  a  clean  or  a  ragged  break  ? 

28.  What  do  you  see  at  the  end  where  it  broke  ? 

29.  How  many  threads  do  you  see  ? 

30.  How  long  are  they  ? 

31.  Pull  out   a   fibre   and  see  if  it  breaks  easily.     It  is 
tenacious. 

32.  Look  where  the  three  branches  of  the  stem  begin 
(Fig.  31,  15). 

33.  Break  the   stem   at   this  joint.     Are  there  as  many 
threads  (fibres)  here  as  there  are  below  ?  . 

34.  Cut  the  stem  at  different  places  and  see  how  many 
threads  are  there. 

35.  Make  many  slices,  beginning  just  below  the  joint  and 
going  on  until  you  find  all  three  branches. 

36.  Note  how  the  threads  mix,  cross,  and  intercross  as 
they  go  upward  toward  the  leaves  (Fig.  31,  1-12). 

37.  Notice  that  these  threads  are  in  two  rows — one  on 
the  outside,  one  near  the  surface. 

38.  Make  these  sections  and  draw  each  one. 

39.  Describe  the  threads  (tough,  elastic,  etc.). 

40.  Notice  that  the  body  of  the  stem  is  white  and  full  of 
holes  (spongy). 

41.  See  the  open  place  inside  the  middle  stem  far  up  to- 
ward the  leaf. 

42.  Press  a  leaflet  and  draw  it. 

43.  Are  leaflets  alike  on  both  sides  ? 

44.  Is  the  stem  as  thick  on  one  edge  as  on  the  other  ? 

45.  Why  ?     Because  the  thinner  edge  is  in  between  the 
neighboring  leaves,  while  the  thicker  one  is  out  by  itself. 


n  8  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

46.  Wash  a  root.     Does  a  root  taste  like  the  stalk? 

47.  Taste  a  bit  of  the  woody  part  of  the  stem  at  the  base 
of  the  leaves.     Does  it  taste  like  the  other  parts  ? 

48.  Find  the  small  leaf  at  the  centre  of  the  bunch.     How 
does  it  compare  with  the  others  in  size,  color,  taste,  smell  ? 

49.  How   are   t,he   little   leaves   in    the   centre    folded  ? 
Plicate. 

50.  Yes  ;  they  are  folded  almost  like  a  little  fan.     See  how 
nicely  they  are  packed  away.     The  old  mother  celery-plant 
has  no  room  to  spare,  so  she  packs  the   little  leaves  tightly 
in  the  middle. 

51.  Some  day  we  will  play  the  game  of  celery.     We  will 
let  Harry  keep  store  and  sell  it  to  us.     Nelly  will  buy  three 
bunches,  and  we  will  have  some  celery  soup,  some  salad, 
etc. 

In  Fig.  32  the  thin  slice  of  stem  is  magnified  about  20 
diameters.  The  central  cavity  and  threads  (vascular 
bundles)  are  also  seen.  The  skin  of  the  stem  is  seen  to  be 
built  up  of  cells  close  together,  while  the  cells  inside  are 
larger  and  irregularly  hexagonal  in  shape.  If  this  figure  be 
given  at  all,  it  should  be  only  briefly  treated  There  is 
plenty  which  the  children  can  see  with  the  unaided  eye 
without  giving  them  the  minute  structure  of  any  organism. 

It  is  suggested  that  the  teacher  go  over  the  foregoing 
lesson  alone  before  presenting  it  to  the  class.  Bring  out 
why  the  long  strings  run  up  through  the  leaves.  It  makes 
the  stems  more  elastic.  It  gives  them  a  sort  of  internal 
skeleton. 

Other  vegetable  forms  which  may  be  presented  in  this 
way  are  asparagus,  rhubarb,  lettuce,  and  the  common  sucu- 
lent  weeds,  i.e.,  plantain,  burdock,  and  yellow  dock,  and 
water-lily  stem,  Jack-in-the-pulpit,  skunk-cabbage  (?),  etc. 

One  of  the  beauties  of  a  lesson  on  celery  is  the  fact  that 
after  the  lesson  is  over  the  children  may  be  allowed  to  eat 
up  the  remains. 

I  have  seen  children  do  work  like  this  in  second  primary 
classes. 


Fermentation*  Distillation,  etc.  ii0 

A  SERIES  OF  FOUR  LESSONS 

PROGRESSIVELY  ARRANGED  TO   ILLUSTRATE  FERMENTATION, 
" :-.  DISTILLATION,  ETC. 

I.  APPLES. 

Here  are  some  apples  that  you  have  brought  me.     What 
a  fine  red  coat  this  one  has  !     See  how  shining  this  one  is. 


FIG.  33.— AN  APPLE.     DISTILLATION. 

Tell  me  what  kind  of  an  apple  is  this.  Bring  out  the  vari- 
ous kinds  of  apples  (pippin,  russet,  etc.). 

What  apples  keep  all  winter  ?  What  kinds  ripen  early  ? 
Name  some  sour  apples. 

Notice  the  stem-end,  the  blow-end,  B  ;  cut  open  and 
show  the  layers,  Z,  Z,  of  the  fruit  (Fig.  33).  Call  attention 
to  the  little  cells,  c,  in  which  the  seeds  are.  Is  this  apple 
ripe  ?  How  can  you  tell  ? 


I2O 


Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 


What  will  happen  if  I  lay  this  half  apple  away  for  a 
while  ?  Yes,  the  cut  side  turns  brown.  Why  ?  "  Because 
the  air  is  beginning  to  rot  it."  Will  apples  rot  if  no  air  can 
reach  them  ?  "  No."  When  sealed  up  in  cans,  they  will 
keep  a  long  time  from  spoiling. 

Now  we  will  put  the  apple  in  this  glass  bottle  and  crush 
it  with  this  stick.  Charlie  may  crush  it  to  pulp.  We  will 
place  it  here  on  the  window-sill  until  to-morrow. 


FIG.  33*. 


II.  FERMENTATION. 

Children,. come  up  close  and  see  what  has  happened  to 
the  apples  we  crushed  and  put  in  this  bottle.  "  It  has 
turned  brown."  "  It  is  rotting."  "  It  smells  sour."  "  There 
are  bubbles  on  it."  "  There  are  bubbles  all  through  it." 

Are  these  air-bubbles  ?  "  No,  it  smells  very  sour."  "  It 
smells  like  cider." 

What  is  the  apple-pulp  doing?  "It  is  rotting."  "It  is 
working." 


Fermentation,  Distillation,  etc.  121 

It  is  working  or  fermenting.  I  will  write  this  new  word 
on  the  board.  Does  fruit  always  ferment  ?  "  When  the  air 
gets  into  a  can  of  fruit,  it  always  ferments."  Some  day  we 
shall  learn  why  fruit  ferments. 

Did  you  ever  see  mamma  bring  up  a  can  of  fruit  from 
the  cellar  when  it  was  working  ?  "  My  mamma  scalds  hers 
when  she  finds  it  working." 

Now  we  will  catch  some  of  this  gas  coming  from  the  fer- 
menting fruit  and  see  what  we  can  do  with  it.  We  will  first 
bend  a  glass  tube,  and  then  bore  a  hole  through  this  cork 
with  a  small  file  and  fit  the  tube  in.  We  will  put  the 
cork  in  tight  so  that  the  gas  will  come  out  through  the 
tube,  T.  Let  us  take  this  glass  of  limewater,  W,  and  let 
the  glass  tube  dip  into  it.  Watch  it  carefully.  "  I  see  a 
bubble  of  gas  come  from  the  tube."  "  When  you  shake  the 
bottle,  more  gas  comes  through  the  tube  and  bubbles 
through  the  limewater."  "  The  limewater  is  turning  white." 
"  It  is  looking  like  milk." 

Yes,  this  proves  that  the  gas  is  not  air,  but  carbonic-acid 
gas.  This  gas  comes  off  from  all  things  that  are  rotting.  I 
will  now  take  the  cork  from  the  bottle  and  you  may  see 
what  I  do.  Harry  may  scratch  a  match  here  and  dip  it 
into  the  mouth  of  the  bottle.  See  what  happens.  "  The 
match  went  out."  Here  are  several  matches.  Each  one 
may  scratch  one  and  dip  it  in  this  gas.  "  They  go  out." 
"  The  gas  puts  them  out." 

This  gas  puts  out  fire  and  turns  limewater  milky  white. 
If  little  boys  and  girls  were  to  breathe  it,  it  would  kill  them. 
Carbonic  acid  is  very  poisonous.  Now  write  on  your  slates 
what  you  have  learned  this  morning  about  carbonic  acid. 
Some  other  day  we  will  learn  more  of  this  dreadful  gas. 

III.  DISTILLATION. 

Yesterday  we  saw  how  when  an  apple  rots  or  ferments 
it  gives  off  what  gas  ?  Will  this  carbonic-acid  gas  burn  ? 
Will  a  stick  burn  in  it  ?  Could  a  little  boy  live  in  it  ?  What 
does  this  gas  do  when  it  bubbles  through  limewater  ? 


122  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

Now  we  will  see  what  is  left  behind  in  the  apple  when 
the  gas  is  coming  away.  Let  us  take  this  little  machine-oil 
can  and  strain  off  some  of  the  apple-juice  into  it.  Then 
fasten  this  rubber  joint  and  glass  tube  on  the  can.  Then 
put  the  other  end  into  a  small  glass  bottle.  We  will  put 
a  cold  wet  cloth  on  the  bottle  to  keep  it  very  cool. 

See  me  hold  the  can  in  the  flame  of  this  lamp.  Pretty 
soon  we  will  see  something  in  the  bottle.  I  did  not  fill  the 
can.  I  put  in  only  a  little  cider.  "  I  see  some  steam  on 
the  inside  of  the  bottle."  "  There  is  a  drop  of  water  on 
the  end  of  the  tube."  "  The  water  or  cider  is  boiling  in 
the  oil-can." 

By  filling  the  can  two  or  three  times  you  can  distil  several 
drops  of  alcohol.  Do  not  let  the  can  boil;  keep  it  hot  and 
with  patience  you  will  get  the  alcohol.  Now  let  us  take  off 
this  bottle  and  smell  the  liquid  inside.  "  It  smells  strong." 
44  It  is  not  water."  "  Will  water  burn  ? "  "  No,  no."  "  We 
put  out  fire  with  water." 

I  will  touch  a  match  to  this.  What  does  it  do?  "It 
burns."  4<  It  burns  with  a  pale  flame." 

This  is  alcohol.  When  the  cider  works,  what  poisonous 
gas  comes  away  ?  "  Carbonic  acid." 

And  what  substance  is  left  behind  ?     "  Alcohol." 

Can  you  tell  me  anything  about  alcohol  ?  "  It  kills 
folks."  "  It  is  in  whiskey  and  beer."  "  It  makes  people 
drunk." 

Yes,  it  is  a  dreadful  poison,  and  to-morrow  we  will  see 
how  it  affects  the  people  who  drink  it. 

IV.  ALCOHOL. 

Children,  here  is  an  egg.  Mary,  can  you  tell  me  how  to 
know  a  good  egg  ?  "  Hold  it  to  the  eyes  and  see  if  it  is 
clear."  "  Hold  it  to  the  lips  and  see  if  one  end  is  cold  and 
the  other  warm." 

When  I  break  this  egg,  how  can  you  tell  if  it  be  good  ? 
"  If  the  white  is  clear  and  the  yolk  whole." 

This  (breaking  the  egg)  is  a  nice  fresh  egg.     The  other 


Fermentation,  Distillation,  etc. 


123 


day  we  made  some  alcohol.  To-day  we  will  see  what  alco- 
hol does  to  eggs.  Here  is  some  alochol  in  this  bottle.  Let 
us  take  some  of  the  egg  and  put  it  in  a  dish  and  pour  on  a 
little  alcohol.  "  The  white  is  turning  hard  and  white." 
"  The  alcohol  is  cooking  the  egg." 

We  will  set  the  dish  on  the  window-sill  and  see  what  it 
has  done  by  recess.  We  will  also  put  this  piece  of  fresh 
meat  into  some  more  alcohol  and  see  what  happens.  I  will 
put  this  angleworm  into  some  alcohol  and  see  what  it  does. 

(After  recess.)  What  did  the  alcohol  do  to  the  egg  ?  "  It 
cooked  the  egg."  "  It  made  it  hard  like  leather."  What 
effect  did  it  have  on  the  meat  ?  "  The  meat  is  tough  and 
hard." 

And  the  worm  ?     "  It  killed  the  worm." 

It  is  a  poison.  It  kills  everything  that  is  put  into  it.  It 
gets  into  the  blood  of  people  who  drink  it,  and  when  that 
blood  gets  to  the  brain  it  makes  the  brain  hard  like  the 
egg.  That  makes  the  person  drunk.  He  cannot  think. 
He  cannot  walk  straight.  He  says  foolish  and  wicked 
things  and  often  kills  people.  It  goes  to  his  heart  and 
gives  him  heart  disease.  It  goes  to  his  liver  and  makes 
him  very  sick.  Wherever  it  goes  it  makes  that  part  weak 
or  useless.  Is  not  a  man  very  foolish  to  put  such  stuff  into 
his  mouth  ? 

This  is  what  the  Bible  says  about  drunkards :  "A  drunk- 
ard shall  not  inherit  the  kingdom  of  heaven." 


Spelling. 

apples 

steam 

bubbles 

bore 

shining 

distil 

cider 

cork 

russet 

leather 

machine 

file 

greening 

brown 

rubber 

tight 

Queen  Anne 

rotten 

joint 

lime 

pippin 

rotting 

drop 

water 

crab,  etc. 

sealed 

poison 

carbonic 

ripen 

spoiling 

fermenting 

acid 

sour 

glass 

fruit 

gas 

124  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

sweet  bottle  scalds  alcohol 

flame  crush  bend  inside 

lamp  pulp  tube 

Some  of  the  above  may  be  too  difficult  for  the  youngest 
children  ;  the  teacher's  judgment  must  determine  what  to 
use. 

Language. 

I.  Simple  sentences  descriptive  of  what  has  been  done 
are  enough  for  lowest  pupils.     Care  must  always  be  taken 
to  see  that  capitalization  and  punctuation  are  attended  to. 

II.  Older  pupils  should  describe  the  experiments  more 
fully,  first  orally,  later  in  writing,  and  great  care  paid  to  the 
sentences  and  paragraphs.     It  is  well  to  alternate  the  les- 
sons, having  a  day  or  two  intervene  between  two  consecutive 
lessons,  and  having  the  language  lesson  on  each  follow  it. 
This  will  be  good  to  strengthen  the  memory  also. 

This  series  is  especially  adapted  to  graded  schools,  but 
can  be  used  with  advantage  in  ungraded  ones. 

Number. 

1.  One  apple  contains  6  seeds  ;   how  many  seeds  in  4 
apples?  in  9  apples?  in  12  apples?  etc. 

2.  If  there  were  7  seeds  in  an  apple,  how  many  apples 
would  it  take  to  give  me  14  seeds  ?  28  seeds  ?  84  seeds  ? 
etc. 

3.  If  we  get  3  bubbles  of  gas  in  i  minute,  in  how  many 
minutes  will  we  get  20  bubbles  ? 

4.  How  many  bubbles  will  we  get  in  20  minutes  ? 

5.  From  i  apple  we  obtained  3  drops  of  alcohol ;   how 
many  apples  would  it  take  to  give  100  drops  ? 

6.  Other  and  simpler  problems  as  well  as  more  difficult 
ones  will  readily  suggest  themselves  to  any  teacher. 

These  lessons  furnish,  ist,  valuable  observations  in 
nature ;  2d  a  basis  of  lessons  in  spelling,  language,  and 
number ;  3d  a  good  opportunity  to  teach  temperance  from 
both  its  scientific  and  its  moral  side. 


Substances.  125 

TEN  LESSONS  ON  COMMON  OBJECTS. 
SUBSTANCES. 
I.  Charcoal. 

Each  pupil  is  supplied  with  a  small  piece.  By  questions 
obtain  the  descriptive  terms  black,  light,  porous,  woody  struct- 
ure, soft  (it  rubs  off  on  the  hands),  tasteless,  odorless,  etc. 

Questions  to  find  out  how  it  is  made.  Propose  to  the 
pupils  to  make  some  by  ordinary  charring  in  the  stove  at 
home.  Try  different  kinds  of  wood — pine,  poplar,  oak,  hem- 
lock, walnut,  etc. — to  see  which  kinds  make  the  hardest,  and 
which  the  softest. 

This  will  disclose  the  fact  that  some  wood  makes  excellent 
charcoal  (as  willow),  while  another  makes  a  poor  quality 
(as  pine). 

With  older  pupils  observation  may  go  farther,  and  show 
that  such  woods  as  pine,  hemlock,  etc.,  which  contain  much 
resin,  do  not  make  good  charcoal,  while  oak,  willow,  etc., 
having  less  resin,  make  far  better  charcoal. 

Ask  for  the  uses  of  charcoal,  i.e.,  fires,  filters,  medicines, 
artists'  work,  etc. 

Explain  (unless  the  work  is  carried  on  in  the  vicinity) 
how  charcoal  is  made  for  the  market ;  how  charcoal-burning 
is  a  great  industry  in  some  parts  of  the  world  where  timber 
is  abundant.  With  young  children  ignore  the  chemical 
properties. 

II.  Sulphur. 

Pieces  of  ordinary  brimstone  are  best  for  the  opening 
lesson.  What  is  its  color?  Its  taste  and  smell?  Will  it 
scratch  iron  ?  Glass  ?  Wood  ?  (to  test  hardness)  Will  it 
melt  ?  Burn  ?  Dissolve  in  water  ?  Show  'the  class  some 
flowers  of  sulphur.  Melt  some  in  an  old  spoon.  Let  it  take 
fire.  How  does  it  smell  ?  Why  do  matches  smell  so  ? 

Dissolve  a  little  sulphur-flowers  in  a  few  drops  of  carbon 
bisulphide  ;  let  it  evaporate  slowly,  and  beautiful  crystals 
of  sulphur  will  form.  These  look  like  sets  taken  from 


126  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

jewelry  (octahedra).  Show  them  to  the  children.  They  are 
very  beautiful. 

Melt  some  sulphur.  Let  it  begin  to  cool  around  the  edge, 
then  quickly  invert  so  as  to  pour  out  the  melted  part  in  the 
middle.  You  will  now  see  another  kind  of  crystals  all 
around  the  place  where  the  melted  sulphur  was  poured  out. 

Take  a  small  keg.  Hang  some  wet  rags  of  various  colors 
inside.  Then  take  a  shovel  of  coals,  sprinkle  sulphur  on 
them,  and  quickly  put  it  under  the  keg  inverted.  After  a 
time  the  colored  rags  will  be  found  to  have  been  bleached. 
Tell  the  children  that  straw  goods  are  bleached  in  this  way. 

Many  other  suggestive  experiments  may  be  made.  It  is 
not  wise  to  give  many  chemical  experiments  like  the  fore- 
going, and  it  is  not  advisable  to  attempt  an  explanation  to 
small  children. 

Where  is  sulphur  found  ?  This  will  open  up  the  ever 
interesting  topic  of  volcanoes. 

Put  some  sulphur  on  a  silver  dollar  ;  it  turns  black. 
Have  you  observed  a  silver  spoon  to  turn  black  in  your 
experience  (in  stirring  eggs)  ? 

Why  do  silver  knives  and  forks  blacken  when  used  to  eat 
cabbage  ?  Such  questions  set  the  child  to  thinking,  and 
disclose  the  presence  of  sulphur  in  many  common  articles 
of  food  ;  hence  its  presence  in  our  flesh. 

III.  Iron. 

Give  each  child  a  nail.     A  new  one  is  best. 

Question  so  as  to  obtain  color,  weight,  hardness  and  cold- 
ness, and  manner  of  breaking. 

Hold  one  end  in  the  hand  and  heat  the  other  end  in  a 
lamp  flame.  What  happens  ?  Conduction  of  heat. 

Heat  a  nail  red-hot  in  a  stove.  Remove  with  a  pair  of 
tongs.  See  the  bluish-black  scales  that  form  upon  it  as  it 
cools.  Call  these  scales  "  black  rust  "  (black  oxide).  Put 
another  nail  in  water  and  leave  it  for  a  day  or  two.  What 
happens  ?  Red  rust. 

Heat  two  nails  red-hot,  Plunge  one  into  cold  water.  When 


Substances.  127 

both  are  cool  again,  rub  one  upon  the  other  to  see  which  is 
hardest.  It  will  be  found  that  the  one  cooled  quickly  is 
harder.  Why  ?  Why  does  the  blacksmith  plunge  his  hot 
iron  into  cold  water?  Ask  him. 

What  will  it  do  to  a  needle  to  heat  it  red-hot  ?  Why  will 
it  soften  the  needle  ?  Because  heating  destroys  the  temper. 
This  answer  is  not  scientific,  but  it  is  sufficient  for  children. 
We  must  ignore  those  things  which  the  child  is  too  young 
to  understand. 

IV.  Iodine. 

Procure  one  or  two  scales  of  iodine  ;  one  cent's  worth  is 
plenty.  Place  them  upon  a  card  and  pass  them  around 
among  the  pupils.  Tell  them  not  to  touch  it.  After  all 
have  seen  it  place  it  in  a  test-tube  or  a  large  piece  of  glass 
tubing  having  one  end  closed.  Heat  gently  in  the  flame. 
See  the  beautiful  purple  (violet)  vapor.  Cool  the  tube  and 
see  the  fine  frostlike  crystals  all  over  the  inside  of  the  tube 
where  the  violet  vapor  has  changed  back  to  the  solid  form. 
Now  add  a  drop  or  two  of  alcohol  or  ether.  See  the  brown 
tincture  of  iodine  formed.  This  experiment  alcne  is  enough 
for  one  lesson. 

Second  Lesson  on  Iodine. 

Take  a  potato,  carrot,  parsnip,  beet,  radish,  turnip,  apple, 
and  any  other  fruit  or  root  in  market.  Cut  them  in  thin 
slices.  The  best  results  are  obtained  if  they  are  cooked. 
Give  small  pieces  of  these  vegetables  to  each  child.  Take 
a  broom-splint  and  wet  the  end  in  the  iodine  tincture  and 
touch  the  slice  of  potato,  carrot,  etc.  Some  will  turn  blue. 
Even  an  apple  when  unripe  will  show  blue  spots  scattered 
through  it.  Ripe  apples  will  not.  What  makes  these  things 
turn  blue  ?  We  will  find  out. 

Take  a  number  of  small  bottles ;  into  the  first  put  sugar 
and  water,  into  the  second  salt  and  water,  into  the  third  a 
little  starch  which  has  been  cooked.  Add  a  drop  of  iodine 
tincture  to  the  first,  second,  and  finally  to  the  third  bottle. 
What  happens  ?  When  anything  contains  starch  iodine 


128  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

will  turn  it  olue.  Ask  children  to  bring  things  and  test 
them  for  starch.  Is  there  starch  in  bread,  cake,  flour,  corn 
meal,  oatmeal,  powdered  sugar,  etc. 

A  small  drop  may  be  placed  on  each  child's  hand,  to 
show  that  iodine  stains  the  skin,  etc. 

I  have  always  found  iodine  a  very  interesting  substance 
with  children. 

V.  Lime. 

Bring  in  a  piece  of  the  size  of  a  hen's  egg.  (It  is  not  well 
to  let  the  children  handle  this,  as  it  cauterizes  the  skin.) 
Place  it  in  a  chalk-box  and  dash  a  little  water  upon  it.  See 
it  swell  and  crack  open.  See  the  steam  rise  from  it.  After 
a  little  pou-r  on  some  more  water  cautiously,  and  do  not 
permit  the  children  to  stand  too  near,  as  it  sometimes  flies 
and  might  burn.  See  it  crumble.  The  lime  is  very  thirsty. 
We  give  it  water  to  slake  its  thirst.  We  say  we  "  slake  the 
lime."  When  it  stops  hissing,  it  will  be  "  slaked  lime." 

Now  we  will  put  the  slaked  lime  into  a  pail  of  water  and 
stir  it.  What  have  we  now?  Whitewash  (milk  of  lime) 
We  will  let  it  settle.  See  how  clear  the  water  on  top  is  now. 
This  will  furnish  a  supply  of  limewater  of  use  when  car- 
bonic acid  in  the  breath  is  studied.  Thus  we  make  the 
work  of  one  class  help  in  the  preparation  of  work  for 
another. 

VI.  Glass. 

A  supply  of  all  kinds  of  glass  should  be  provided  ;  at 
least  the  following  should  be  at  hand :  window-glass, 
American  plate,  French  plate,  green  bottle-glass,  yellow 
bottle-glass,  glass  marbles,  stained  glass,  and  fragments  of 
colored  glass.  Broken  bottles,  glassware,  sets  of  cheap 
jewelry,  broken  lamp-shades,  etc.,  etc.,  all  furnish  the  very 
material  needed.  When  possible,  a  fragment  from  some 
glass-works  and  pieces  of  slag  from  iron-works  are  useful. 
The  teacher  should  also  have  a  piece  of  soft  glass  tubing  at 
least  three  inches  long. 


Substances.  129 

Take  first  a  piece  of  clear  glass  and  get  the  pupils  to 
describe  it.  Bring  out  its  transparency,  weight,  hardness, 
brittleness,  and  other  obvious  properties.  Have  a  piece 
broken  and  examine  the  fracture  carefully.  It  breaks  not 
in  smooth  surfaces  (planes  of  cleavage),  but  rather  in 
irregular  lines.  These  fresli  edges  will  also  show  what 
appear  to  be  shell-like  markings  (conchoidal  fractures).  I 
have  sometimes  had  pupils  bring  me  stones  where  this 
peculiar  breaking  looked  so  like  a  shell  that  they  were  taken 
for  fossils.  Drop  a  glass  marble  upon  a  flat  stone.  It  bounds 
back.  It  is  elastic.  Place  a  long  strip  of  glass  so  that  its 
ends  are  supported,  but  the  middle  is  not.  Now  lay  a  heavy 
stone  on  the  middle,  and  if  not  too  heavy  the  strip  of  glass 
will  be  seen  to  sag.  Remove  the  weight.  It  springs  back. 
It  is  indeed  elastic. 

Scratch  various  things  with  a  piece  of  glass.  It  is  hard. 
Can  you  file  glass  ?  Try  and  see.  Rub  it  on  emery-paper. 
What  happens  ? 

Heat  the  piece  of  tubing  in  an  alcohol  flame.  When  red- 
hot,  pull  gently  on  the  ends.  It  is  ductile.  Tell  the  children 
about  glass-blowing.  Tell  them  about  Venetian  glassware. 
Get  them  to  learn  what  they  can  about  the  manufacture  and 
uses  of  glass.  Distribute  your  specimens  and  tell  them  how 
the  colors  are  produced.  Cobalt  makes  blue,  gold  red, 
arsenic  white,  iron  bottle-green,  etc.  Give  as  topics  for 
research  cut-glass,  glass-blowing,  etc. 

Place  fragments  of  glass  in  a  stove  and  see  them  fuse  and 
run  down  like  wax.  Cut  glass  with  hot  iron,  also  with  a 
wheel  or  ordinary  glass-cutter. 

VII.  Soap. 

A  small  quantity  of  sweet-oil,  a  very  little  baking-soda  or 
potash,  and  a  bar  of  soap  are  needed.  Let  the  pupils  see 
the  oil  and  the  soda.  Then  place  the  oil  in  a  baking-powder 
box  cover  and  add  a  strong  solution  of  soda  drop  by  drop. 
Heat  over  a  lamp  or  upon  the  stove.  The  oil  will  curdle 
and  form  a  soap.  When  cold,  it  may  be  examined  by  the 


130  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

children.  Smell,  taste,  and  cleansing  power  all  prove  it  to  be 
a  soap.  Compare  it  with  the  piece  of  soap.  Ask  questions 
about  soap-making.  Try  to  make  soap,  using  lard  instead 
of  the  oil 

VIII.   Sugar. 

Sugar  should  be  passed  around  the  class.  Different  kinds 
of  sugar  should  be  compared.  Rock  candy  is  pure  trans- 
parent crystals.  Powdered  sugar  is  white.  Why?  Sugar 
on  the  skins  of  figs  is  not  sweet.  Sugar  crystallized  from 
molasses  is  brown.  Describe  the  way  maple  sugar  is  made, 
beet  sugar,  sorghum.  Dissolve  white  sugar  in  water.  Let  it 
stand  to  get  the  crystals.  Describe  them.  Heat  dry  sugar. 
It  changes  to  caromel. 

g|3j  IX.  Rubber.- 

To  make  a  lesson  on  rubber  interesting,  the  teacher 
should  have  samples  of  this  substance  in  all  stages  of  manu- 
facture. The  gum,  sheet  rubber,  dental  rubber,  vulcanized 
rubber  in  all  its  forms,  should  be  on  hand.  Many  lessons 
may  be  given  on  it  because  of  its  diversified  forms  and 
manifold  uses. 

(a)  Soft  Rubber. 

Feel  it,  smell  it,  ascertain  all  its  physical  properties. 
Heat  a  small  piece.  Burn  it.  Smell  it  when  burning. 
Dental  rubber  may  be  had  from  any  dentist.  It  is  very 
thin  and  soft,  and  it  is  wonderfully  elastic.  Some  kinds  of 
chewing-gum  are  almost  pure  rubber. 

(b)  Hard  Rubber. 

Combs,  pen-holders,  etc.,  are  common.  From  these  the 
various  properties  of  hard  rubber  may  be  ascertained.  The 
way  in  which  hard  rubber  is  made  from  soft  rubber  is  a 
secret,  but  much  may  be  learned  about  it  in  cyclopaedias. 


Lessons  on  the  Human  Body.  131 

A  FEW  SUGGESTIVE  LESSONS  ON  THE  HUMAN  BODY. 

The  much  to  be  dreaded  languor  which  so  frequently 
creeps  over  a  school  on  rainy  days,  may  often  be  checked 
by  laying  aside  books  and  by  turning  the  minds  of  pupils 
into  different  channels  of  thought  for  a  time.  Thus  it  will 
often  be  found  that  a  lesson  on  some  part  of  the  body  so 
pknned  as  to  produce  motion  of  that  part,  will  rest  the 
child,  and,  thus  refreshed,  he  will  go  back  to  work  on  his 
regular  lessons  with  keener  appetite,  and  the  general  order 
of  the  school  will  be  at  the  same  time  improved. 

Exercises  in  stretching,  kicking,  kneeling,  and  light 
calisthenics  are  good,  but  any  exercise  which  gets  the  pupil 
from  his  seat  and  gives  his  members  a  chance  to  change 
their  cramped  position  will  perform  that  office  quite  as 
well. 

The  following  lessons  are  offered  as  combining  drill  on 
the  human  body  with  motion  of  the  body  : 

I.  Parts  of  the  Body. 

Place  hands  upon  the  head,  body,  arms,  legs.  How  many 
parts  have  you  touched  ?  Place  hand  on  neck.  Where  is 
the  neck  ?  Describe  it.  It  is  round,  etc.,  and  joins  the 
head  to  the  body.  What  do  we  call  the  upper  part  of 
the  body  ?  The  lower  part  ?  To  which  part  are  the  legs 
attached?  The  arms?  What  is  the  line  of  meeting  be- 
tween chest  and  abdomen  called  ?  Place  hands  at  the  waist, 
at  the  hips,  at  the  sides  of  neck  and  head,  upon  the  chest. 

How  are  the  lower  limbs  divided  ?  Thigh,  leg,  and  foot. 
What  are  the  parts  of  the  foot?  Heel,  instep,  ball,  toes. 
What  part  of  the  upper  limbs  is  like  the  thigh  ?  Upper  arm. 
What  part  corresponds  to  the  leg  ?  Forearm  ?  Bend  knees, 
ankles,  etc. 

Compare  the  fingers  with  the  toes  as  regards  number,  size, 
and  usefulness.  Name  all  the  divisions  of  the  body  which 
you  have  learned.  Make  a  table  of  them,  thus  : 


132 


Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 


Trunk 


head 
neck 


trunk 


not  divided 


[chest 
I  abdomen 


limbs  < 


upper 


lower 


upper  arm 
forearm 

f  wrist 
hand  \  palm 

[fingers 
thigh 
leg      f  ankle 

heel 

foot    \  instep 
ball 
toes 


Note  to  Teacher. — It  is  not  necessary  that  this  classifica- 
tion be  pushed  so  far  as  this,  and  yet  some  may  find  it 
interesting  to  go  farther  with  it.  That  will  depend  largely 
upon  the  age  and  intelligence  of  the  pupil  and  the  time  and 
inclination  of  the  teacher.  Thus  the  names  of  the  fingers 
and  toes  might  be  added  to  the  above  classification. 

It  is  well  also  to  require  the  formation  of  simple  sentences 
about  all  the  parts  of  the  body  mentioned.  This  will  fur- 
nish good  drill  in  sentence-building,  and  it  will  help  to  fix 
these  things  upon  the  mind. 

It  is  important  that  every  child  know  all  the  principal 
parts  of  his  body.  Some  of  these  names  are  used  very 
loosely  by  people  at  large,  including  many  teachers.  Thus 
he  word  limb  is  often  made  to  answer  for  leg,  when  it 
applies  equally  to  upper  and  lower  extremities,  and  the 
word  leg  is  made  to  do  duty  for  the  entire  lower  limb,  when 
it  is  in  reality  that  portion  of  the  lower  limb  between  the 
knee  and  ankle. 

It  is  often  amusing  to  see  where  elocutionists,  ministers, 
and  other  public  speakers  often  locate  their  hearts  in 
gesture.  A  little  judicious  drill  with  the  young  will  do 
much  to  eradicate  these  errors  so  common  with  older 


Lessons  on  the  Human  Body.  133 

people.     In  such  a  lesson  each  part  must  be  touched  in 
order  to  give  the  exercise  needed. 

II.  Joints. 

Having  introduced  the  children  to  the  various  parts 
of  the  outside  of  the  body,  the  next  step  may  be  to  ob- 
serve how  these  parts  are  united.  Thus  it  is  excellent 
exercise  to  take  some  joint,  as  the  elbow.  Give  its  name. 
In  how  many  directions  can  you  bend  it  ?  Try  to  bend  the 
forearm  in  other  ways,  holding  the  upper  arm  firmly  while 
you  do  it.  Develop  the  likeness  to  the  opening  of  a  door, 
trunk,  blind,  etc.  These  things  open  on  hinges.  Give  me 
a  good  name  for  the  elbow-joint.  A  hinge-joint.  Find 
other  joints  of  this  kind.  In  like  manner  the  various  other 
kinds  of  joints  can  be  developed.  How  many  hinge-joints 
have  you  in  each  hand  ?  Fourteen.  In  each  foot  ?  What 
part  of  the  hinge-joints  in  your  body  are  found  in  the 
hands  ?  Why  are  there  no  hinge-joints  in  your  neck  ?  What 
kind  of  a  joint  has  the  lower  jaw  where  it  is  attached  to  the 
skull  ?  Why  is  this  hinge-joint  loose  ?  So  as  to  admit  of  a 
side  motion  as  well  ?  In  order  to  chew  the  food. 

III.   The  Flesh  and  Blood. 

Lay  your  left  hand  upon  the  right  upper  arm  and  raise 
the  right  forearm.  What  do  you  feel  with  your  left  hand  ? 
Why  does  it  become  larger  and  harder  where  you  lift  the 
arm?  Feel  of  the  "calf"  of  the  leg.  How  does  the  flesh 
there  compare  with  that  about  the  face  and  neck  ?  Why  ? 

Bring  in  a  piece  of  lean  beef  and  give  each  child  a  small 
portion.  What  is  its  color,  smell,  texture  ?  Can  you  not 
see  the  soft  fibres  in  it  ?  This  is  flesh  or  muscle.  Your  flesh 
is  like  this  in  color  and  texture. 

With  a  fine  needle  prick  your  hand  so  that  a  drop  of 
blood  comes  out.  Describe  the  blood.  If  you  have  a 
microscope,  examine  some  to  see  the  little  circular  cor- 
puscles it  contains.  This  is  blood.  It  flows  all  through 
the  muscles  in  very  fine  tubes  called  capillaries. 


134  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

Take  your  piece  of  beef  and  wash  it  very  carefully  and 
thoroughly.  The  blood  will  all  be  washed  out  and  the 
muscle  will  become  almost  white.  What,  then,  is  the  real 
color  of  muscle  ?  To  what  does  it  owe  its  red  color  ?  Why 
are  some  people  pale  ?  Why  are  our  lips  red  ?  Why  do  our 
hands  show  red  color  when  held  up  to  the  sunlight  ? 

In  like  manner  the  different  organs  of  the  body  may  be 
taken  up,  always  introducing  facts  in  the  child's  own  ex- 
perience when  possible,  and  always  bringing  into  school  the 
thing  to  be  studied  itself  when  such  part  can  be  had.  Thus 
exercises  in  breathing,  feeling  the  pulse,  "  feeling  the 
muscle,"  allusions  to  having  swallowed  the  "  wrong  way," 
the  mouth  watering,  etc.,,  may  be  very  useful  means  to 
introduce  subjects  of  physiology  which  are  really  so  near 
to  us,  and  yet  seem  often  to  be  so  far  away.  A  heart,  lungs, 
and  liver  may  be  easily  obtained  from  the  butcher.  Every 
child  should  know  the  heart,  lungs,  larynx,  etc.,  not  merely 
from  having  read  of  them,  but  from  having  seen  and 
handled  them,  and  in  this  way  having  formed  an  actual 
acquaintance  with  them. 


Lessons  in  the  School-yard.  135 


(Efjapter 

LESSONS  IN   THE  SCHOOL-YARD, 

LESSONS  ON  A  RAINY  DAY. 

A  rainy  day  is  always  more  or  less  difficult  to  get  through 
with.  This  difficulty  is  equally  hard  upon  the  teacher  and 
the  pupil.  There  is  something  in  the  atmosphere  that  renders 
all  such  days  oppressive.  The  opening  exercises  drag  ;  the 
first  class  fails  ;  the  teacher  scolds  ;  the  other  classes  go 
badly  ;  they  are  kept  in  at  recess  ;  and  so  on,  until  the 
close  of  school.  Then  the  pupils  go  home,  thinking  how 
hateful  a  place  school  is,  and  what  an  "  ugly  old  bear  "  the 
teacher  is;  and  the  teacher  goes  home  with  a  heavy  heart, 
thinking  that  her  lot  was  not  cast  in  pleasant  places,  and 
wishing  that  she  were  a  clerk,  stenographer,  or  nurse-maid. 

But  why  adhere  so  rigidly  to  the  programme  on  such  a  day  ? 
Why  not  turn  this  very  kind  of  a  day  to  account,  and  make 
it  a  theme  for  instruction  to  the  pupils  and  relaxation  to 
yourself  ? 

There  is  much  in  an  ordinary  shower  to  furnish  themes 
for  instruction  in  all  manner  of  lines  of  thought. 

If  the  weather  threatens  rain,  bring  out  the  fact  in  some 
way.  The  following  is  suggested  : 

Before  the  Rain. 

What  makes  it  so  dark  in  the  school-room  ?  Why  have 
clouds  come  between  us  and  the  sun  ?  What  kind  of 
clouds  are  they  ?  Rain-clouds.  Do  we  always  have  clouds 
before  a  rain  ?  Let  us  go  out  and  look  at  the  clouds.  What 
color  are  they  ?  Why  do  they  move  about  so  fast  ?  Why 
does  the  air  feel  so  damp  ?  In  what  direction  is  the  wind 


136  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

blowing  f  What  do  we  call  such  a  wind  ?  A  north  wind 
comes  from  the  north.  Winds  are  named  from  the  place 
whence  they  come.  ,  * 

During  the  Rain. 

Children,  see  how  the  rain  is  falling.  Why  are  people 
holding  their  umbrellas  in  that  slanting  way  ?  Why  does 
the  rain  come  in  such  a  slanting  direction  ?  How  does  the 
water  get  up  so  high  in  the  air  ?.  In  what  form  is  it  before 
it  falls  ?  Vapor,  like  steam  from  the  kettle.  Did  you  ever 
see  a  cloud  in  the  house  (steam)?  How  did  it  look  ? 
When  did  you  see  it  ?  Why  does  the  water  change  into 
steam  in  the  kettle  ?  Why  does  water  change  to  vapor  out- 
doors ?  Do  I  have  to  heat  water  to  make  it  change  to 
steam  ?  Let  us  put  some  water  here  in  this  dish  and  leave 
it  until  to-morrow.  What  is  the  rain  doing  to  the  ground  ? 
Where  does  the  water  go  after  it  falls  on  the  ground  ? 
What  becomes  of  that  which  soaks  into  the  earth  ?  Will 
we  ever  see  it  again  ?  When  ?  What  becomes  of  the  water 
that  runs  off  on  the  ground  ?  Why  does  it  run  toward  the 
gutter,  Mary  ?  Dwell  upon  slopes.  When  it  gets  to  the 
gutter,  why  does  it  not  stop  running,  Charlie  ?  Where,  then, 
does  it  go,  Emma?  Why  does  it  flow  that  way?  Push 
these  questions  until  no  one  knows  where  the  water  goes, 
and  then  appoint  some  pupil  to  find  out.  Thus,  for  exam- 
ple, you  may  find  that  the  water  runs  in  little  rills  to  the 
gutter  because  the  land  slopes  that  way  ;  thence  to  another 
ditch,  thence  to  a  river  or  pond.  Do  not  trace  it  more  than 
a  mile,  and  with  little  children  a  half  mile  is  enough.  Lead 
them  to  see  that  it  goes  on  and  on.  Teach  them  that  there 
is  something  beyond;  so  will  their  minds,  beginning  with  the 
little  rills,  open  out  toward  the  rivers  and  sea.  The  gentle 
slopes  (plains)  and  steep  slopes  (hills)  are  easily  taught  in 
this  manner. 

After  the  Shower. 

Now,  children,  we  will  try  to  see  what  the  rain  did  to  the 
ground.  See  where  the  little  drops  fell  here  under  the 


Lessons  in  the  School-yard.  137 

eaves  of  the  house.  What  do  you  see  here  ?  Why  do  these 
hollows  come  here  ?  What  has  it  left  behind  ?  Let  us  find 
where  the  water  ran  away  from  the  house.  Who  can  find 
the  place  ?  What  makes  you  think  this  is  the  place  where 
the  water  ran?  Yes,  it  has  left  a  little  channel  in  the 
ground.  The  little  stream  that  ran  away  from  the  side  of 
the  house  did  some  work,  didn't  it  ?  Every  little  stream 
has  its  work  to  do. 


FIG.  34. — DRAINAGE  OF  SCHOOL-YARD. 


Let  us  follow  this  little  channel  and  see  where  it  goes. 
What  made  it  bend  here,  Freddie  ?  Why  did  it  go  so 
straight  here,  Fannie?  Why  did  it  get  larger  here,  Josie  ? 
Now  we  will  follow  it.  Here  it  is  quite  large.  Why  is  the 
coarse  sand  left  here  and  the  fine  sand  carried  farther 
down  ?  Georgie,  take  this  stick  and  see  where  this  little 
pond  is  deepest.  Why  is  the  fine  sand  piled  over  there  ? 
Where  is  the  coarse  sand  ?  Here  is  a  weed  dug  out  by  the 
little  stream.  Let  us  see  if  we  can  draw  on  our  slates  the 


138  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

shape  of  this  little  pond,  and  show  where  the  sand  is  piled, 
and  where  the  little  stream  runs  into  it  and  out  of  it. 

The  above  lesson  gives  opportunities  to  bring  out  higher 
lessons  with  higher  classes.  The  rainfall  as  the  origin  of 
streams  and  the  laws  of  streams  apply  to  the  diminutive  rill 
whose  source  is  the  eaves  of  the  house  and  whose  mouth  is 
the  little  temporary  pond  in  the  lowest  part  of  the  school- 
yard. Whole  rivers  and  systems  of  rivers  may  be  traced 
and  mapped,  and  the  laws  of  their  growth,  flow,  deposits, 
and  erosion  studied  from  so  humble  an  object,  the  water- 
shed in  this  case  being  the  roof  of  the  building  itself,  and 
for  that  reason  all  the  more  conspicuous. 

The  formation  of  a  mud-bank,  S,  and  the  delta,  Z>,  are  well 
worth  study.  This  shows  how  streams  are  the  enemies  of 
lakes.  The  inlets  are  constantly  trying  to  fill  up  the  lakes 
with  mud,  while  the  outlets  are  trying  to  cut  open  a  wider 
and  deeper  channel  to  let  out  the  water  stored  up. 

Our  pupils  found  a  rill  flowing  down  the  hillside,  which 
emptied  into  a  small  puddle  of  quiet  water.  At  the  mouth 
of  this  rill  a  delta  had  formed  with  thirteen  separate  streams. 
The  sediment  had  been  sorted  in  a  truly  wonderful  manner. 
Practical  and  systematic  observations  upon  temperature  by 
the  aid  of  the  thermometer  are  valuable  as  lessons.  They 
are  best  given  in  the  school-yard.  I  have  found  them  very 
helpful  to  geography  work  later  on. 

TEMPERATURE. 

I  wonder  how  warm  it  is  this  morning.  Frank,  you  may 
take  the  thermometer  out  and  find  how  hot  it  is.  Frank 
returns,  having  found  the  thermometer  to  register  72°. 
Where  did  you  take  the  temperature  ?  Go  out  and  see  if  it 
is  just  the  same  on  the  north  side  of  the  building,  Mary. 
Mary  finds  it  only  70°.  Floyd  is  now  sent  out  into  the 
road  to  find  the  temperature  there.  He  returns  and  finds 
the  temperature  about  71°.  Try  to  find  the  reason  for  such 
difference  of  temperature.  Is  it  warmer  on  the  north  or 


Lessons  in  the  School-yard.  139 

south  side  of  the  building  ?  Why  ?  Where  is  it  warmer — 
near  the  house  or  out  in  the  field  ?  Why  ? 

Such  facts  as  these  will  help  us  in  all  our  work  :  Why  is 
Mr.  Clark's  cow-shed  open  on  the  south  side  and  shut  on  the 
north  ?  Why  are  Mr.  Ryan's  rose-houses  fixed  with  their 
roofs  sloping  toward  the  south  ?  Why  has  Mr.  Moore  put 
his  garden  on  the  south  slope  of  the  hill  ?  Why  does  snow 
remain  longer  where  I  live  than  where  Sanford  lives  ?  Why 
do  the  cows  always  get  on  the  south  side  of  the  fences  in 
cold  weather?  When  the  sun  shines  on  the  ground,  it 
warms  the  air,  and  if  we  can  have  a  fence,  or  shed,  or  wall 
to  keep  the  wind  from  blowing  this  warm  air  away,  it  will 
be  warmer  for  our  plants  and  animals. 

When  I  came  to  school  this  morning,  I  saw  that  Elsie  had 
al  Ithe  geraniums  and  heliotropes  covered  with  papers.  Why 
did  she  do  that,  Irving  ?  "  To  keep  the  cold  out."  "  To 
keep  them  from  freezing."  Why  does  such  treatment  pre- 
vent plants  from  freezing,  Mattie  ?  "  Because  the  papers 
keep  the  air  under  them  very  quiet,  and  the  wind  cannot 
blow  the  warm  air  away."  The  earth  is  being  warmed  every 
day,  all  day,  long.  When  the  sun  goes  down,  this  heat 
escapes  from  the  ground.  It  warms  the  air  next  to  the 
ground.  Now  if  we  can  cover  the  plarrts,  t-his  warm  air 
will  be  kept  in,  and  so  the  plants  will  be  saved.  From  what 
does  all  this  heat  come  ?  Yes,  it  comes  from  the  sun. 
The  sun  is  the  source  of  heat.  Do  you  think  we  could  live 
without  the  sun's  heat  ?  No,  every  living  thing  would 
perish.  The  sun  gives  us  heat,  and  so  it  is  the  source  of 
life,  too.  How  can  we  help  warm  plants  and  animals  so 
that  they  will  thrive  and  increase  for  us  ?  Yes,  by  sheds, 
walls,  and  protections  against  winds  and  cold.  I  saw 
radishes  in  market  last  March.  The  frost  was  in  the 
ground.  It  was  very  cold,  and  the  wind  was  blowing  as  it 
always  does  in  March.  "  They  grew  in  a  cold-frame  or  a 
hotbed."  "  Perhaps  they  were  raised  in  a  greenhouse." 
That  is  right.  Let  us  see  what  you  can  tell  me  about  these 
things.  These  are  the  principal  ways  that  we  have  of 


140  Lessons  in  Nature  Studv. 

catching  the  sun's  heat  and  holding  it  so  as  to  make  our 
plants  grow  before  the  weather  outside  will  permit. 

Henry  may  find  out  what  a  cold-frame  is  and  how  to 
make  one,  and  tell  us  to-morrow.  James  may  tell  us  about 
hotbeds.  This  art  of  raising  early  vegetables  is  called 
"  forwarding."  This  is  an  important  business  near  large 
cities.  Carrie  may  look  up  this  word  and  tell  us  about  it 
to-morrow. 

THE  LEAF-BUD. 

Much  time  and  attention  have  been  given  of  late  to  pri- 
mary lessons  on  plant-forms  and  plant-life.  The  seed,  its 
coats,  its  cotyledons  and  germ  have  been  taken  and  studied, 
and  their  development  has  been  watched  and  each  stage 
drawn. 

Comparatively  little,  however,  has  been  done  with  leaf- 
buds.  Now  these  are  nearly  as  interesting  objects  of  study 
as  are  the  seeds.  They  have  the  added  advantage  of  being 
larger,  and  are  thus  much  easier  for  pupils  of  primary  grade 
to  study. 

Children,  there  are  interesting  things  in  the  yard.  Let  us 
see  if  we  can  find  them.  How  brightly  the  sun  shines  ! 
Pretty  soon  the  trees  will  spread  their  leaves  and  we  shall 
have  shade  here.  Who  has  a  sharp  knife  ?  Henry,  you 
may  get  me  some  twigs  from  this  tree.  James,  you  may  get 
some  from  that  tree.  Mary  may  get  some  from  the  bush 
over  yonder.  Let  each  get  enough  for  the  class.  Now 
we  will  go  in  and  study  them. 

We  will  put  the  twigs  in  water  and  keep  them  fresh. 
Here  are  some  twigs  from  a  hickory-tree.  See  what  large 
buds  it  has.  What  is  the  shape  of  this  bud  ?  Where  is  the 
bud  (end  or  side)  ?  How  many  outer  scales  are  there  ? 
What  color  are  they  ?  Are  they  hard  or  soft  ?  Smooth  or 
rough  ?  Thick  or  thin  ?  How  do  they  differ  from  the 
inner  scales  ?  How  do  the  insides  of  scales  differ  from 
the  outsides  ?  What  do  you  find  on  the  edges  of  these  inner 
bud-scales  ?  Why  is  the  fine  down  put  on  these  scales  ? 
See  how  beautifully  these  scales  lap  over  each  other. 


Lessons  in  the  School-yard. 


141 


Carefully  remove  the  scales,  one  scale  at  a  time  ;  have  the 
children  notice  the  beautiful  lustrous  down  covering  the 
scales  until  the  little  tuft  of  leaves  is  reached.  What  do 
you  find  in  the  centre  of  this  bud  ?  Leaves.  How  are  these 
leaves  folded  in  the  bud  ?  How  many  leaves  do  you  find 
in  your  bud,  Harry  ?  Pick  these  off  and  tell  me  what  you 


FIG.  35.— BUDS. 
a,  Ailanthus ;  £,  beech ;  c,  sycamore ;  </,  sumach. 

find  now,  Lucy.  Yes,  there  is  a  smaller  bunch  of  leaves  in- 
side this  larger  one.  Are  these  leaves  all  in  one  cluster,  or 
are  there  several  clusters  ?  Are  the  outer  ones  tough  or 
tender,  Jennie  ?  Why  are  these  bud-scales  put  so  thickly 
around  this  little  branch  of  tender  leaves  ?  To  protect  them. 
From  what  do  the  scales  protect  the  tender  young  branches  ? 


142 


Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 


Heat,  cold,  moisture.  Is  not  nature  kind  to  wrap  up  this 
little  baby  branch  so  warmly,  just  as  mamma  wraps  up  her 
little  baby,  to  keep  it  warm  in  the  cold  and  wet  weather  ? 

Now  you  may  take  your  slates  and  write  all  you  can  tell 
about  this  pretty  hickory-bud. 


TWIGS  AND   BUDS. 


Name. 

Scar. 

Position. 

Shape. 

Scales. 

Vernation, 
folded 

Outer. 

Inner. 

brown, 
smooth, 
acute 

Beech 

small, 
narrow 

alternate 

slender, 
long, 
pointed 

brown, 
dry, 
acute 

Whitewood 

V-shaped 

alternate 

oblong 

two  large, 
oval 

none 

folded 
from  apex 
to  base 

Horse- 
chestnut 

large, 
triangular, 
dotted, 
gray 

opposite 

pointed, 
egg-shape, 
large 

dark 
brown, 
blunt, 
sticky 

brown, 
pointed, 
sticky 

folded 
like  a  fan 

The  above  is  offered  as  a  suggestive  schedule  for  record- 
ing observations  on  buds.  Let  each  pupil  secure  a  good 
twig  having  one  or  more  buds  upon  it.  Let  these  twigs  be 
cut  of*  uniform  length  and  mounted  neatly  on  a  card,  with 
the  name  of  each  bud  under  it.  Pupils  of  older  grade  may 
draw  these  also  and  thus  get  added  stores  of  knowledge. 

If  the  teacher  supply  herself  with  plenty  of  twigs,  she  can 
use  them  with  advantage  in  number-work  and  busy-work, 
thus  : 

Distribute  twigs  of  different  sorts  to  the  pupils  and  give 
them  such  directions  as  the  following  on  the  board  : 

1.  Place  your  beech  twigs  on  the  right  side  of  your  desk. 

2.  Put  the  horse-chestnut  twigs  in  the  middle. 

3.  Put  the  hickory  twigs  on  the  left  side. 

4.  If  you  have  a  twig  with  5  buds  upon  it  and  pick  off  2, 
how  many  have  you  left  ?    If  i  twig  has  3  buds  and  another 
has  5  buds,  how  many  buds  have  both  ?  etc.,  etc. 

The  teacher  can  vary  such  work  indefinitely,  and  the 
pupil  will  become  more  and  more  expert  in  noticing  buds, 


Lessons  in  the  School-yard.  143 

and  his  observing  powers  being  cultivated  in  this  direction, 
he  will  come  to  see  other  things  with  greater  ease. 

A  very  attractive  way  to  mount  twigs  is  to  select  a  cir- 
cular piece  of  heavy  cardboard  as  large  as  a  barrel-head. 
Place  a  cross-section  of  a  branch  from  some  tree  in  the 
centre  by  means  of  glue  and  then  arrange  the  twigs  along 
the  radii  of  the  circle.  A  permanent  arrangement  may  be 
made  by  fastening  the  buds  to  a  square  board  with  small 
staples  or  double-pointed  tacks  ;  then  give  the  whole  a  coat 
of  varnish  or  hard-oil  dressing. 

TREE-BUDS. 
Preparations  for   Winter. 

Here  are  some  twigs  which  I  cut  off  this  morning  on  the 
way  to  school.  The  red  autumn  leaves  have  scarcely  gone, 
but  see  what  I  find  here  on  the  branches.  Yes,  they  are 
buds.  How  do  they  differ  from  the  tender  leaf-buds  which 
have  been  growing  and  expanding  all  summer  ?  Yes,  they 
are  shut  up  very  tight.  Do  you  see  any  other  difference  ? 
Why,  yes,  to  be  sure,  there  are  scales  all  over  them.  Did 
you  ever  see  buds  like  these  before  ?  So  they  do  look  like 
the  buds  we  studied  last  spring.  Does  the  tree  put  on  its 
winter  buds  in  September  ?  Why  is  this  ?  Old  Mother 
Nature  is  very  kind  to  the  little  buds.  She  is  now  putting 
on  their  nice  warm  coats,  for  she  knows  that  winter  will 
soon  be  here.  Pretty  soon  we  shall  put  on  our  winter  flan- 
nels, and  bring  out  our  thick,  warm  overcoats,  too. 

Can  you  tell  me  anything  else  that  is  beginning  to  prepare 
for  the  cold  weather  ?  The  horses'  coats  are  getting  thicker  ; 
kitty's  hair  is  not  coming  out  now  ;  the  hens  are  not  shed- 
ding so  many  feathers  as  they  did  in  July.  The  little  seeds 
have  fallen  upon  the  ground  and  are  fast  asleep.  Do  you 
think  that  the  little  buds  know  that  winter  will  soon  be 
here  ?  Does  the  old  tree  say  to  the  little  buds,  "  Keep  still, 
little  children  ;  I  am  going  to  put  out  some  nice  warm  bud- 


144  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

scales  all  around  you  to  keep  you  warm,  for  it  will  soon  be 
very  cold  "? 

No,  the  tree  is  dumb.  She  does  not  know  that  winter  is 
near,  but  the  Creator  takes  care  of  the  little  buds  and  covers 
them  with  scales  to  protect  them  from  frost  and  snow.  He 
has  given  us  kind  fathers  and  mothers  to  wrap  us  up  when 
winter  comes  to  chill  us.  Ought  we  not  to  be  very  thank- 
ful that  these  little  buds,  too,  are  so  kindly  cared  for  ?  If 
it  were  not  for  these  bud-scales  coming  out  early  enough  to 
protect  the  tender  buds,  they  would  freeze,  and  the  tree 
could  not  grow.  What  other  signs  do  you  see  that  winter 
is  coming  ?  The  leaves  have  fallen.  The  weather-pole  is 
casting  longer  shadows.  The  thermometer  shows  that  it  is 
getting  cooler.  I  saw  a  flock  of  birds  flying  southward  this 
morning.  All  the  crops  are  ripe  and  gathered  in.  There 
was  a  frost  last  night.  The  days  are  getting  short.  Yes,  all 
these  things  teach  us  that  winter  will  soon  be  here.  To- 
morrow you  may  bring  to  the  language  class  a  fable  about 
a  bud  becoming  clothed  to  protect  it  during  winter. 

WHAT  CAN  BE  FOUND  UNDER  A  FLAT  STONE. 

Children,  let  us  all  go  out  at  recess,  and  see  what  new 
thing  we  can  find.  Here  is  a  nice  shady  place.  We  shall 
find  something  here.  There  is  a  large  stone.  I  wonder  if 
I  have  a  boy  who  is  strong  enough  to  turn  it  over.  You 
may  try,  Charlie.  Now,  children,  get  in  a  ring  around  this 
stone,  and  when  Charlie  turns  it  over  we  must  use  our  eyes 
and  try  to  see  everything  that  is  under  it.  Now,  ready — 
over  it  goes  !  (Pointing)  What  is  that  little  black  insect 
with  hard  shiny  wings  ?  (A  bug.)  Yes,  that  is  called  a 
bug.  Who  can  tell  me  another  name  for  it  ?  (A  beetle.) 
Yes,  this  is  a  beetle.  We  will  put  it  in  this  box  and  exam- 
ine it  some  other  day.  \Vhat  is  that  black  insect  with  big 
claws  and  short  black  wings  ?  (A  cricket.)  Yes,  that  is  a 
cricket.  Let  us  catch  him  also  and  keep  him  until  another 
day.  What  is  this  curious  little  creature  which  has  so  many 
legs  ?  Do  not  touch  him.  A  hundred-legged,  worm.  Yes, 


Lessons  in  the  School-yard.  145 

it  is  a  hundred-legged  worm.  Now  most  of  these  things 
have  crawled  away,  but  I  want  to  see  who  can  remember 
some  other  things  we  saw  there  which  got  away  before  we 
had  time  to  catch  them  or  talk  about  them. 

"  I  saw  an  angleworm."  "  I  saw  a  great  many  ants." 
"  I  saw  a  snail,"  etc.,  etc.  That  is  right.  Now  let  us  go  in 
and  write  on  our  slates  all  the  things  we  saw.  I  will  let  the 
one  who  gets  the  best  list  write  it  on  the  board,  and  then 
you  may  copy  it  for  future  use. 

Note  to  the  Teacher. — Never  put  any  of  your  own  obser- 
vations on  the  board.  It  will  cause  the  children  to  depend 
on  you  rather  than  upon  themselves.  The  beetle  and 
cricket  may  be  killed  after  the  children  are  away  with  a 
drop  of  benzine  or  gasoline,  and  thus  they  will  not  see  you 
take  a  life,  and  the  ethical  value  of  the  lesson  will  not  be 
impaired. 

Ask  the  children  why  do  the  insects  all  run  away  when 
the  stone  is  turned.  Why  is  the  grass  under  it  white  ? 
Here  is  a  list  made  by  a  child  of  seven  years  : 

WHAT   I   SAW   UNDER   THE   ROCK. 

I  saw  a  beetle,  five  crickets,  some  fishworms,  a  thousand- 
legged  worm,  a  grub,  some  ants,  a  slug,  five  sow-bugs,  and  some 
ants'  eggs. 

On  another  day  a  board  may  be  turned  over  ;  let  them 
write  on  What  may  be  found  under  an  old  board. 

On  another  day  turn  the  bark  of  a  decayed  tree  ;  let 
them  write  What  can  be  found  under  the  bark  of  a  rotten 
tree,  etc.,  etc. 

Ask  the  boys  if  the  same  things  are  found  under  stones 
in  the  brook.  If  not,  what  is  found  under  such  stones  ? 
Gather  some  of  the  insects  and  other  living  creatures  in 
water,  and  watch  their  ways  of  life. 

I  have  often  found  material  for  as  many  as  twenty  lessons 
on  living  things  under  a  stone  or  board  in  a  moist  shady 
place. 

Making  the  foregoing  lesson  a  general  introduction,  follow 
it  up  with  a  number  of  special  lessons  on  the  creatures  found 


1 46  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

under  it.  These  creatures  are  of  so  many  types  of  animal 
Jife  that  the  child  who  has  studied  what  was  found  there 
has  acquired  a  knowledge  of  much  of  the  underlying  facts 
of  biology  and  zoology  at  the  same  time  that  his  senses  have 
received  valuable  training,  and  his  love  of  nature  has  been 
increased. 

When  possible,  have  some  sort  of  .aquarium, — any  large 
vessel  will  do, — and  people  it  with  the  living  things  from 
ponds  and  brooks.  The  child  always  prefers  a  living  sub- 
ject to  a  dead  one.  Fishes,  crayfish,  and  water-snails  are  at 
least  abundant  enough  to  begin  with. 

THE  EARTHWORM. 

An  observation  lesson  for  lowest  primary  pupils.     Place,  the 
school-yard."    Time,  the  recess. 


(a)  (S) 

FIG.  36.— #,  EARTHWORM  ;  £,  HEAD  MAGNIFIED.  .^' ; ' 

Now,  children,  let  us  go  out  in  the  yard  and  see  what  we 
can  find  during  recess. 

They  go  out  into  the  yard.  They  go  to  some  portion  of 
the  school-grounds  where  the  earth  has  not  been  trampled 
down  hard,  and  where  the  ground  is  moist.  One  of  the 
boys  may  bring  a  spade  to  dig  with,  or  perhaps  a  large  flat 
stone,  as  in  the  preceding  lessons,  may  be  overturned.  If 
the  former,  they  dig  for  bait  and  give  each  child  an  earth- 
worm. All  the  boys  will  take  them  in  hand  eagerly.  It 
gavors  of  going  a-fishing.  Some  of  the  girls  will  handle 


Lessons  in  the  School-yard.  147 

them  also  ;  others  will  shudder  and  turn  away.  Do  not 
compel  such  a  child  to  take  one.  Such  aversions  will  soon 
pass  away,  and  even  the  most  timid  will  come  to  handle 
these  and  other  harmless  creatures  without  any  feelings  of 
dislike. 

When  all  are  supplied,  direct  them  in  an  examination  of 
this  little  creature.  Tell  them  nothing.  Ask  questions  like 
the  following  : 

Who  can  tell  -me  the  name  of  this  little  [animal  ?  What 
color  is  it  ?  What  shape  has  it  ?  How  does  its  head  differ 
from  the  tail  in  shape  ?  Where  are  its  eyes  ?  Has  it  any 
feelers  ?  Of  what  is  its  body  made  ?  How  many  rings  do 
you  find,  Charlie  ?  How  many  rings  has  your  worm, 
Nellie  ?  Is  its  body  smooth  or  rough  ?  Which  way  is  it 
rough — from  head  to  tail  or  tail  to  head  ?  Look  closely 
and  see  if  you  can  tell  why  it  is  so  rough.  Can  you  find  its 
little  mouth  ?  Look  just  below  the  pointed  head  and  see 
if  you  can  find  the  mouth.  Its  mouth  is  very  small,  and  it 
has  no  teeth.  How  does  the  earthworm  move  ?  Watch  it 
crawl.  What  part  does  it  push  forward  ?  How  long  can 
your  worm  stretch,  Mary  ?  When  it  pushes  its  head  for- 
ward, what  does  it  do  with  the  back  part  of  the  body  ? 
What  keeps  its  tail  from  sliding  backward  while  it  moves 
its  head  forward  ?  What  does  the  angleworm  eat  ?  I  will 
tell  you  :  it  swallows  soil,  from  which  it  obtains  food,  and 
then  vpids  it  upon  the  ground  in  the  form  of  small  round- 
ish masses  called  worm-casts.  These  you  may  see  on  the 
ground  in  any  garden  where  angleworms  abound. 

How  do  you  think  that  this  little  worm,  with  such  a 
soft  body,  can  bore  holes  through  the  ground  ?  I  will  tell 
you:  the  pointed  end  pushes  forward,  and  the  minute 
hooks  on  the  rings  that  make  them  feel  so  rough  hold  the 
body  from  sliding  back.  Do  you  see  the  sticky  wet  fluid 
that  comes  out  on  the  surface  of  the  worm  ?  That  helps  to 
keep  his  body  moist,  and  so  he  can  breathe.  Did  you  ever 
see  one  of  these  worms  on  the  ground  ?  When  do  they 
come  out  of  the  ground  ?  Why  do  they  come  out  at  night 


148  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

and  after  showers  ?  Why  do  they  dig  down  deeper  when 
we  have  dry  weather  and  cold  winter  weather  ? 

These  poor  little  blind  creatures  have  a  great  many  ene- 
mies. If  they  come  out  on  the  ground,  the  robins  and 
chickens,  toads  and  other  animals,  eat  them  up.  Did  you 
ever  see  a  robin  have  one  in  her  mouth  ?  Did  the  old  hen 
ever  watch  you  when  you  were  digging  bait,  and  pick  up 
the  worms  when  they  came  out  of  the  ground  ?  But  they 
have  enemies  underground  also.  The  moles  often  follow 
them  and  eat  them.  Boys  dig  them  and  use  them  for  fish- 
ing. These  worms  do  much  good  for  us.  By  digging  in 
the  ground  they  help  to  loosen  it  up,  and  they  make  it  rich 
by  the  worm-casts  that  they  leave  on  the  surface. 

If  I  cut  it,  the  earthworm  does  not  feel  it  so  badly  as 
other  animals.  We  will  take  a  box  of  this  nice  moist  earth 
and  sift  it,  so  that  there  will  be  no  worms  in  it.  Then  we 
will  cut  this  big  worm  in  two,  and  put  both  pieces  in  the  box 
— so.  I  will  put  on  the  cover  so  that  this  worm  cannot  get 
away,  and  we  will  watch  to  see  what  will  occur. 

When  earthworms  are  cut  in  pieces,  the  parts  will  develop 
a  new  head  and  tail  respectively,  and  form  two  individuals. 
This  usually  requires  some  time.  The  earth  must  be  kept 
moist.  The  dirt  in  the  box  should  be  sifted  again  in  a 
month,  and  the  worms  carefully  examined  for  proofs  of  the 
statement.  The  writer,  when  a  boy,  had  an  aquarium  in  an 
old  tub.  On  the  bottom  was  a  layer  of  earth  free  from 
earthworms.  He  fed  his  fish  with  angle-worms  chopped 
fine.  Some  pieces  fell  to  the  bottom,  and  when  the  tub 
was  cleaned  after  three  months  the  earth  was  filled  with 
small  worms.  But  whether  the  worms  came  from  the 
pieces  fed  to  the  fishes,  or  whether  the  new  worms  were 
hatched  from  eggs  already  in  the  mud,  he  is  not  now  pre- 
pared to  state. 

Earthworms  eat  many  things  besides  dirt.  Leaf-mould 
and  particles  of  food  found  on  the  surface-  of  the  ground 
form  part  of  their  diet.  Darwin  found  that  they  will  eat 
sugar,  starch,  meat,  crumbs  of  bread,  etc. 


Lessons  in  the  School-yard.  149 

When  they  crawl  out  at  night,  they  pull  small  things 
down  into  their  holes.  The  worms  are  wise  little  fellows, 
for  they  always  pull  the  small  end  into  the  hole  first.  We 
should  love  worms,  for  they  are  our  friends.  There  are  many 
millions  of  them  in  the  ground.  By  boring  the  ground  they 
keep  it  loose.  It  is  a  sort  of  ploughing  that  they  give  the 
ground.  But  when  they  pull  leaves  into  their  holes,  they 
help  to  enrich  the  ground.  So  you  see  that  they  are  the 
friends  of  man. 

Suppose  you  try  to  write  a  story,  What  a  Worm  Said. 


FIG.  37.— GARDEN-SLUGS. 
a,  Stalked  eyes  ;  £,  feelers. 

THE  GARDEN-SLUG. 

We  went  out  the  other  day,  and  down  in  the  back  yard 
we  turned  over  a  large  flat  stone.  How  many  of  you  can 
remember  what  we  found  under  it  ?  Jessie,  you  may  tell 
what  we  saw  under  the  stone.  "  I  saw  big  black  crickets." 
That  is  right,  but  did  you  not  see  anything  else  ?  "I  saw 
ants." 

Note  to  Teacher. — Accustom  the  children  to  remember 
all  they  saw  there.  Such  a  list  will  doubtless  include  angle- 
worms, ants'  eggs,  sow-bugs,  slugs,  snails,  thousand-legged 
and  hundred-legged  "  worms,"  crickets,  spiders,  and  many 
other  things. 


150  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

What  did  these  creatures  do  when  we  turned  over  the 
stone  ?  Why  did  they  avoid  the  light  ?  Why  did  they  run 
and  crawl  away  ?  How  did  the  grass  that  had  been  cov- 
ered by  the  stone  look  ?  Why  ?  What  makes  the  uncov- 
ered grass  green,  then  ?  Why  ?  Is  that  grass  green  now  ? 
What  has  changed  it  from  white  to  green  ?  Light  of  the  sun. 

James,  you  may  go  out  and  turn  over  the  stone  now  and 
bring  in  a  slug.  Now  let  us  look  at  him.  What  color  is  he  ? 
What  shape  ?  How  does  he  move  ?  We  will  let  him  be 
quiet  here  and  see  how  he  moves.  Watch  him  carefully. 
What  does  he  do  first  ?  What  then  ?  See  how  he  moves 
along.  See  the  little  waves  that  move  along  on  his  under 
side.  This  little  creature  has  no  bones.  His  little  body  is 
soft.  We  will  put  this  small  tomato  here  where  he  can 
crawl  upon  it.  Pretty  soon  we  shall  see  him  eat.  Look  at 
his  horns  closely.  Take  this  glass  and  look  at  them.  Look 
at  the  ends  of  them.  What  do  you  see  there  ?  Eyes.  Yes, 
his  eyes  are  on  the  tops  of  these  stalks.  Why  are  his  eyes 
put  where  he  can  lift  them  up  so  far  ?  So  as  to  see  on  all 
sides.  Yes,  he  has  to  watch  on  all  sides  to  look  out  for  his 
enemies.  Who  can  name  some  of  this  poor  slug's  enemies  ? 
Robins,  chickens,  all  other  birds,  toads,  and  moles.  The 
poor  slug  has  no  shell  to  protect  him,  as  the  snail  has.  But 
his  color  hides  him,  because  it  is  gray  or  brown,  like  the 
ground.  Some  day  we  will  get  some  snails  and  see  how 
much  they  are  like  the  slug. 

Now  I  will  tell  you  something  about  the  slug.  His  tongue 
is  like  a  file,  and  his  18,800  teeth  are  on  his  tongue.  He  runs 
out  his  tongue  and  files  off  the  soft  plant-leaves  and  fruit, 
and  so  gets  his  dinner.  See  where  this  slug  has  crept. 
What  has  he  left  behind  him  ?  A  shining  track.  Yes,  he 
has  left  a  shining  mark  behind  him.  His  body  is  soft  and 
it  gives  off  this  sticky  substance,  so  as  to  let  him  go  over 
the  ground  faster.  He  oils  the  ground  just  as  mamma  oils 
her  sewing-machine  to  make  it  go  easier. 

Let  us  put  a  little  salt  on  this  slug — so.  See  what  he  does. 
Do  you  think  he  likes  salt  ? 


Lessons  in  the  School-yard.  151 

Now,  Mary,  tell  us  what  you  know  about  the  slug.  What 
do  slugs  eat  ?  Who  ever  found  one  eating  a  strawberry,  a 
tomato,  a  grape  ? 

For  to-morrow's  language  lesson  I  want  you  to  make  up  a 
story  about  a  slug.  Put  into  your  story  some  things  you 
have  learned  about  slugs.  Be  careful  about  your  capitals, 
periods,  and  commas.  You  must  write  it  very  neatly  and 
well. 

THE  SNAIL. 

Teacher. — Henry  has  found  some  snails.  What  animal 
do  they  look  like  ?  Like  slugs.  Yes,  they  are  like  a  slug, 
but  they  have  a  shell,  and  the  slug  has  none.  Is  the  shell 
a  part  of  the  snail,  or  is  it  the  house  of  the  snail  ? 

ist  Pupil. — It  is  a  part  of  the  snail,  because  he  cannot 
get  out  of  the  shell. 

Teacher. — What  does  he  do  with  his  shell  when  he  goes 
from  place  to  place? 

2d  Pupil. — He  carries  his  shell  on  his  back. 

Teacher. — We-will  put  some  snails  on  this  piece  of  glass 
and  watch  them. 

\st  Pupil. — He  is  beginning  to  stretch  out. 

2d  Pupil. — He  is  putting  out  a  pair  of  feelers. 

$d  Pupil. — He  has  two  pairs  of  feelers  like  the  garden- 
slug. 

Teacher. — Can  the  snail  feel  ? 

ist  Pupil. — I  touched  his  body  and  he  drew  in  his  feelers 
and  rolled  up 'his  body  into  the  shell. 

2d  Pupil. — When  I  touched  his  feelers,  he  pulled  them 
in  and  did  not  put  them  out  for  a  long  time. 

Teacher. — Can  you  find  the  snail's  mouth  ? 

$d  Pupil. — This  snail  is  eating  the  lettuce-leaf,  and  his 
mouth  seems  to  be  just  below  his  feelers. 

Teacher. — Yes,  the  snail  is  like  the  slug.  His  mouth  is 
just  below  in  front.  He  has  a  tongue  like  a  file,  and  so  gets 
his  food  to  eat.  Are  there  rings  to  his  body  ?  Is  the  snail 
warm  or  cold  ?  Does  he  leave  slimy  marks  behind  him  ? 


152  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

Note  to  Teacher. — The  snails  may  be  placed  in  a  box  of 
moist  earth,  rotten  wood,  and  dead  leaves,  and  supplied  with 
a  fresh  head  of  lettuce  or  a  leaf  of  cabbage.  The  pupils 
can  then  observe  their  ways  of  life. 

The  soft  jellylike  eggs  will  soon  be  seen,  and  the  young 
snails  will  appear  with  their  minute  shells  having  i|-  whorls. 

The  pupils  may  draw  the  shell  and  write  the  results  of 
their  observations  illustrated  with  the  drawings. 

Water-snails  may  also  be  studied  in  a  jar  of  water.  Their 
habits  will  furnish  an  endless  supply  of  material  for  observa- 
tions. 

It  is  a  good  plan  to  make  a  collection  of  land  and  fresh- 
water shells,  placing  each  kind  by  itself  in  a  small  box.  If 
you  do  not  know  the  name,  label  each  box  with  the  loca- 
tion where  it  was  collected. 

Slugs  and  snails  belong  to  a  very  large  family  of  animals. 
We  call  this  family  the  mollusks.  All  mollusks  have  soft 
bodies,  and  most  of  them  have  shells  into  which  they  can 
crawl. 

THE  MILLIPEDE  AND  CENTIPEDE. 

Here  are  two  curious  creatures  found  under  a  stone.  Let 
us  examine  them.  We  will  not  touch  them,  for  they  are 
poisonous.  Let  us  see  wherein  they  are  alike. 

Both  are  long  and  slim.  Both  have  jointed  bodies.  Both 
live  under  stones  and  in  damp  places.  Both  have  many 
legs,  and  long  feelers  on  their  heads.  We  call  them  thou- 
sand-legged worms.  Do  you  suppose  that  they  have  so 
many  legs  as  that  ?  No,  indeed.  Which  kind  has  the  most 
legs  ?  How  do  they  differ  in  color  ?  We  call  the  one  with 
the  greatest  number  of  legs  a  millipede,  and  the  other  a 
centipede.  The  centipede  is  flat,  but  the  millipede  has  a 
round  body.  The  hind  legs  of  the  centipede  are  bent  back 
like  two  tails.  How  does  the  millipede  act  when  I  touch 
him  with  this  pencil  ?  He  rolls  up  into  a  ball.  Which  has 
longest  feelers  ?  The  centipede.  Are  these  feelers  com- 
posed of  one  piece,  or  are  they  jointed  ?  Which  one  is  most 
active  ? 


Lessons  in  the  School-yard.  153 

The  centipede  grows  to  be  almost  a  foot  long  where  it  is 
warm  all  the  year.  It  is  very  poisonous  in  such  countries. 
The  millipede  sometimes  becomes  as  large  around  as  a 
pencil.  The  centipede  is  so  flat  that  he  can  get  under 
stones  and  in  to  very  narrow  places;  he  eats  insects;  his  horns 
or  feelers  are  longer  than  those  of  the  millipede.  A  baby 
centipede  is  just  like  a  big  one  only  he  has  fewer  joints  in 
his  body.  Millipedes  often  live  in  damp  moss  and  under 
rotten  wood  and  leaves.  Once  in  a  while  these  curious 
little  creatures  shed  their  skins  and  get  more  joints  to  their 
bodies.  Look  at  them  carefully  with  this  glass.  Do  you 


(a) 
FIG.  38. — a,  CENTIPEDE  ;  6,  MILLIPEDE. 

see  any  difference  in  the  way  the  legs  are  attached  to  the 
bodies  ?  Yes,  in  the  centipede  each  joint  has  one  pair  of 
legs,  but  in  the  millipede  each  joint  has  two  pairs  of  legs. 

Would  you  call  these  curious  creatures  insects  ?  Why 
not  ?  Because  in  insects  the  body  has  three  distinct  parts 
and  always  six  legs.  Most  insects  have  wings  also.  Do 
you  think  that  these  creatures  are  friendly  to  the  crickets, 
ants,  and  beetles  which  we  saw  under  the  stone  ?  No,  they 
are  the  enemies  of  insects,  and  often  eat  them. 

Some  people  call  them  "  earwigs,"  but  they  are  not  true 
"  earwigs." 


154  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 


fcfjaptn: 

WALKS  WITH  THE  CHILDREN. 

Many  books  on  nature  study  urge  upon  the  teacher  the 
duty  and  necessity  of  walks  with  the  children,  and  the  using 
of  such  occasions  as  opportunities  for  instruction.  Now  it 
is  very  beautiful  to  see  a  teacher  surrounded  by  a  party  of 
eager  children,  inhaling  the  "  odors  of  the  forest,"  and 
walking  along  a  country  road  overhung  by  trees  and  bordered 
with  spring  flowers.  The  picture  is  beautiful ;  but  is  it 
practicable  ? 

How  many  teachers  can  do  this  in  school-hours  without 
bringing  down  upon  them  the  accusation  of  "  not  'tending  to 
business  "  ? 

However  desirable  this  mode  of  teaching  may  be  to 
satisfy  the  patrons,  the  majority  of  teachers  must  find 
time  for  it  after  school-hours  or  on  Saturdays.  In  my  own 
school,  excursions  have  been  made  to  neighboring  towns  to 
observe  various  modes  of  manufacturing,  and  three  or  four 
times  a  year  journeys  have  been  made  by  single  classes  in 
search  of  minerals,  insects,  or  plants.  In  all  such  cases  the 
length  of  the  journey  should  be  proportioned  to  the  age  and 
learning  of  the  children  ;  and  be  it  always  remembered  that 
one  need  never  go  far  to  find  an  abundant  supply  of  mate- 
rial for  study.  The  effect  of  excursions  is  so  very  excel- 
lent that  they  should  be  undertaken  when  allowable  ;  and 
it  is  urged  upon  every  teacher  who  may  read  this  book  to 
try  the  effect  of  an  occasional  walk  with  his  pupils.  It  is 
believed  that  one  walk,  under  intelligent  guidance,  affords 


Walks  with  the  Children.  155 

a  better  understanding  of    geography  than  many  lessons 
from  the  best  existing  text-book. 

A  WALK  IN  EARLY  SPRING. 

At  close  of  school — earlier  if  possible — plan  to  go  out  with 
the  little  ones.  Do  not  take  a  long  walk. 

If  we  are  very  good  to-day  and  can  get  our  work  done, 
we  will  take  a  walk.  Let  us  see  what  we  can  find.  The 
grass  has  not  yet  begun  to  grow,  but  perhaps  we  can  find 
some  little  wild  flowers  even  now  peeping  up  beside  the 
road.  I  saw  a  snowdrop  this  morning,  and  Lottie  says  that 
her  crocuses  are  almost  open. 

Now  let  us  all  have  our  eyes  open  for  signs  of  spring. 

What  bird  is  that  yonder  ?  How  do  you  know  it  is  a 
robin  ?  Hark  !  perhaps  we  can  hear  him  sing.  How  do 
robins  go  on  the  ground  ?  Name  some  other  bird  that 
hops.  Where  do  the  robins  live  ?  How  do  they  build 
their  nests  ?  What  kind  of  eggs  do  they  lay  ?  Did  you 
ever  see  a  young  robin  ?  What  does  the  old  robin  feed  her 
little  babies  with  ? 

Here  is  a  pine-tree.  Let  us  get  some  of  the  bark  and 
leaves.  Get  some  of  those  cones,  too. 

Here  is  a  small,  clear,  glassy  stone,  and  there  a  milky 
one.  These  are  quartz.  See  if  you  can  find  one  that  is 
pink  in  color. 

Anna. — Here  is  some  snow  by  the  side  of  this  rock. 

Teacher. — On  which  side  is  it  ? 

Jane. — On  the  north  side. 

Teacher. — Why  does  the  snow  stay  so  much  longer  on 
the  north  side  ? 

Charlie. — Because  the  sun  does  not  touch  it. 

Teacher. — Do  you  remember  the  snowflakes  which  we  saw 
last  winter,  and  how  they  looked  ? 

Frank. — They  were  like  stars. 

May. — They  had  six  parts  to  them. 

Teacher. — Does  this  snow  have  such  beautiful  forms  ? 


IS6  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

All. — No,  ma'am. 

Teacher. — That  is  because  the  snow  has  been  here  so 
long.  It  has  melted  and  frozen  many  times,  and  the  pretty 
stars  are  gone. 

Charlie. — Here  is  a  fern  coming  up  by  this  stump. 

Teacher. — See  how  the  fern-leaf  is  rolled  up,  and  how 
much  soft  wool  is  around  the  young  bud  to  keep  it  warm. 

Frank. — I  have  found  some  gray  moss. 

Teacher. — That  is  reindeer  moss.  The  reindeers  eat  it 
away  in  Lapland,  where  it  is  very  cold. 

May. — I  see  some  pussy-willows,  but  the  pussies  are  very 
little. 

Teacher. — We  will  not  pick  them  now,  for  they  are  too 
small.  Some  other  day  we  will  get  them,  when  they  are 
larger.  Hark,  do  you  hear  those  birds  cawing  ?  What  are 
they? 

Jane. — They  are  crows.     They  say  "  Caw,  caw." 

May. — See  how  fast  they  fly. 

Anna. — They  are  going  to  find  their  supper. 

Teacher. — What  will  these  crows  have  for  supper  ? 

Frank. — They  will  pick  up  things  on  the  ground.  When 
they  can,  they  eat  corn  in,  the  field. 

Charlie. — My  papa  has  a  scarecrow  in  the  field  every 
year. 

Teacher. — The  crows  build  their  nests  in  March  and  April. 
They  take  bark  to  build  their  nests.  They  line  them  with 
sticks  and  dry  grass. 

Anna. — I  saw  a  crow's  egg.  It  was  green,  with  brown 
marks  on  it. 

Jane. — A  crow's  egg  is  over  an  inch  long. 

Teacher. — Crows  try  to  hide  their  nests,  and  when  we  go 
near  them  they  fly  away  to  deceive  us.  When  they  have 
eggs,  they  are  very  brave.  They  eat  snakes,  mice,  and 
insects  in  the  spring,  and  berries  and  grain  in  the  fall.  But 
we  must  now  go  home.  Let  us  come  again  soon  and  see 
how  things  have  grown.  We  have  collected  things  for  some 
interesting  lessons. 


Walks  with  the  Children. 


FIG.  39.— QUARTZ  CRYSTALS. 


OUTLINES  OF  LESSONS  ON  THE  THINGS  COLLECTED  DUR- 
ING THE  FIRST  WALK  IN  SPRING. 

I.  Quartz. 

Yesterday  we  found  some  very  pretty  pebbles  and  stones 
when  we  were  walking.  Here  is  a  stone  that  Jessie  found. 
It  is  clear,  like  glass.  Charlie  may  take  it  out  and  break  it. 
Will  it  scratch  glass  ?  Wood  ? 
Iron  ?  Zinc  ?  Tin  ?  Find  out  by 
having  them  try  it  on  the  window, 
the  floor,  the  stove,  the  zinc  under 
the  stove,  and  their  dinner-pails. 
It  is  quarts.  Sometimes  we  find 
quartz  in  very  beautiful  forms, 
like  Fig.  39.  These  pebbles 
were  once  so  formed,  but  they 
have  been  worn  round.  Here  ib  a 
milky  one.  Did  any  of  you  find 
a  pink  one  ?  We  call  that  rose 
quartz.  And  here  is  one  with  a  pale  purple  hue.  It  is 
amethystine  quartz  ;  but  that  is  too  big  a  word  for  you.  We 
will  call  it  purple  quartz.  Now  write  on  your  slates  what 
you  can  of  quartz. 

II.  Bark. 

Look  at  this  piece  of  bark.  Who  can  tell  me  what  it  is  ? 
What  is  its  color  ?  Does  it  cut  easily  with  a  knife  ?  Is  it 
tough  or  tender,  rough  or  smooth,  thick  or  thin  ?  Can 
you  peel  off  layers  of  it  ?  Can  you  strip  it  up  in  fine  pieces 
(threads,  fibres)  ?  Does  it  smell  ?  Compare  the  bark  in 
question  with  birch,  oak,  pine,  grape,  cork,  etc.,  etc.  The 
teacher  should  collect  many  varieties  of  bark,  to  facilitate 
comparison. 

III.  Pine-needles. 

Here  are  some  of  the  pine-needles  that  we  found  the 
other  day.  Are  the  needles  put  on  singly  or  in  bunches  ? 
How  many  needles  are  there  in  a  bunch  ?  See  if  all 
bunches  contain  the  same  number  of  needles,  How  long 


158  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

are  the  needles?  How  wide?*  What  color  are  they? 
Were  there  any  needles  on  the  ground  under  the  tree  ? 
What  color  were  they  ?  When  does  the  pine-tree  shed  its 
needles  ? 

IV.  Pine-cones. 

This  is  the  fruit  of  the  pine-tree.  What  do  we  call  such 
a  fruit  ?  See  if  you  can  find  a  thin  scale  inside  your  cone. 
These  are  the  seeds  of  the  pine.  Do  you  find  a  clear 
sticky  substance  on  your  cone  ?  This  is  what  ?  Resin.  Did 
you  ever  see  a  baby  cone  ?  In  a  few  days  we  will  take 
another  walk  and  try  to  find  some.  Now  let  us  dip  our 
cones  in  this  water  and  leave  them  there  until  recess,  and 
we  shall  see  what  happens  to  them. 

(Later.)  What  has  happened  to  the  cones  ?  Yes,  they 
have  shut  up  very  tight.  What  made  them  do  this  ?  Do 
cones  close  when  it  rains  ?  Why  do  they  do  this  ?  By 
closing  the  little  seeds  are  often  loosened,  and  so  scattered 
on  the  ground.  Can  you  find  a  seed  in  your  cone  ?  What 
does  it  look  like  ?  Yes,  it  looks  somewhat  like  a  maple-key 
or  elm-seed.  Why  did  nature  give  the  pine-seed  a  wing  ? 
Let  us  throw  it  up  and  see  if  it  will  fly  for  us.  Name  some 
plants  which  have  seeds  with  wings.  What  would  happen 
if  the  pine  had  no  wings  to  its  seeds  ? 

SECOND  WALK  IN  EARLY   SPRING. 

Take  a  little  wider  range  in  this  walk,  but  do  not  go  too 
far.  Remember  that  there  is  such  an  abundance  of  material 
near  by  that  it  is  not  wise  to  go  far.  Let  each  child  carry  a 
small  box  in  which  to  put  his  collections.  A  baking- 
powder  box  is  excellent  for  this  purpose.  The  teacher 
should  have  a  pocket  microscope  also. 

Call  attention  to  the  different  kinds  of  clouds — woolly 
(cumulus),  feathery  (cirrus),  etc.;  point  out  how  the  woolly 
ones  are  lower,  how  they  are  drifting.  Tell  them  the  tale  of 
Apollo's  sheep.  Get  them  to  note  the  various  birds  seen  in 
passing.  Point  out  the  different  trees  along  the  way.  Col- 


Walks  with  the  Children.  159 

lect  the  long-pointed  buds  of  the  beech,  the  blunt  ones  of 
the  elm,  the  sticky  ones  of  the  horse-chestnut,  the  beauti- 
ful downy  buds  of  the  hickory,  etc.,  etc. 

See  the  young  maple-keys  sprouting.  Note  how  the 
beechnut  has  opened  its  seed-leaves.  Find  some  acorns 
with  their  sprouts  starting,  etc.,  etc. 

Now  sit  down  and  give  them  ten  minutes  to  collect  ob- 
jects. Divide  the  party  into  three  or  four  sets,  send  them 
in  different  ways,  and  tell  them  that  they  must  come  back 
when  you  call  them. 

Back  they  come  at  your  call,  spring's  earliest  trophies  in 
their  hands. 

Harry  has  a  crayfish  from  the  brook.  Anna  and  her 
party  bring  back  lichens,  bark,  willow  catkins  in  every 
stage  of  development.  May  has  found  a  box-turtle  tightly 
shut  in  its  mottled  shell.  Others  bring  arbutuses,  cinque- 
foils,  anemones,  cowslips,  and  buttercups.  Frank  has 
a  bunch  of  spring-beauties,  and  you  tell  them  that 
this  delicate  flower  has  a  little  sort  of  potato  at  its  root, 
and  ask  them  to  find  one.  Away  they  go,  digging  in  the 
rich  dank  mould.  See  how  the  eyes  sparkle  and  the  cheeks 
glow  as  the  fortunate  ones  come  back  with  the  desired  ob- 
ject. Charlie  comes  last  with  a  snake  he  has  killed  and 
some  frogs'  eggs  in  a  bottle  of  water. 

Having  enough  for  many  days,  we  will  place  our  collec- 
tions in  our  boxes  and  go  back  to  school.  The  frog's  eggs 
will  be  put  in  a  jar  of  water  and  we  shall  see  what  comes  of 
them. 

Note  to  Teacher. — When  shall  we  take  longer  walks  ?  I 
have  often  brought  it  about  in  this  way  :  Promise  the  chil- 
dren that  if  order  is  good  all  day  you  will  dismiss  ten  min- 
utes earlier  and  take  a  walk.  It  is  often  better  to  say,  "  We 
will  go  on  a  hunt."  There  is  something  about  the  word 
"  hunt "  which  inspires  an  interest  among  the  boys.  Force 
no  one  to -go,  but  make  it  so  interesting  to  those  who  do  go 
that  next  time  there  will  be  others  who  will  desire  to  ac- 
company the  "  hunting  party."  Never  prolong  such  a  trip 


160  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

until  any  one  is  tired.     It  is  often  very  handy  to  have  one 
of  the  boys  take  a  hammer  for  breaking  stones. 

Do  not  forget  that  the  mere  collection  of  materials  is  not 
the  end  and  aim  of  the  trip.  It  is  to  bring  pupils  in  contact 
with  nature,  and  so  cultivate  the  heart.  This  is  one  great 
end  of  nature  study.  When  the  materials  collected  on  this 
walk  have  been  used,  there  is  an  excuse  to  warrant  another 
"  hunt." 

OF  THE  SECOND  WALK  IN  SPRING. 
Lessons  on  Materials  Found. 

I.    Young  Maple. 

Here  are  some  maple-keys  that  we  found  sprouting 
yesterday.  How  many  leaves  has  it  ?  Are  they  like  com- 
mon maple-leaves  ? 

Hattie. — They  are  long  and  slim. 

Joste. — They  are  bent  and  twisted. 

Teacher. — Yes,  these  leaves  were  rolled  up  and  folded  in 
the  seed.  Now  they  are  straightened  out.  Has  any  one  a 
little  maple  with  more  than  the  first  two  leaves  ? 

Anna. — My  maple  has  four  leaves.  The  second  leaves 
are  wider. 

Willie. — The  second  leaves  are  more  like  real  maple- 
leaves. 

Teacher. — Yes,  the  second  leaves  are  wide,  and  the  third 
pair  are  like  large  leaves.  Are  the  leaves  opposite  or  alter- 
nate ? 

Hattie. — They  are  opposite. 

In  like  manner  study  all  the  young  seedlings  collected. 
The  first  and  second  beech-leaves  are  opposite,  later 
ones  alternate.  The  young  pine-leaves  are  in  a  whorl.  The 
young  oak-leaves  alternate  from  the  first.  Parts  of  the  seed 
come  up  in  some  plants  (beech,  bean,  maple,  etc.).  In  other 
plants  the  seed  remains  on  the  earth  (pea,  acorn,  horse- 
chestnut). 


Walks  with  the  Children.  161 

II.  The  Crayfish. 

Its  color,  size,  shape.  Two  sets  of  legs,  five  pairs  of 
large  true  legs,  and  five  pairs  of  false  ones.  Two  pairs  of 
horns  (antennae).  How  does  the  first  pair  differ  from  the 
others?  How  do  the  first  three  pairs  differ  from  the 
others  ?  What  shape  is  the  tail  ?  Fan.  Describe  the  eyes. 
How  does  the  crayfish  move  ? 

After  studying  the  crayfish  alive  add  a  little  salt  or  vine- 
gar to  the  water  to  kill  it.  When  killed,  remove  from  the 
water  and  spread  it  out  on  a  piece  of  wood  and  dry  it.  It 
may  be  glued  to  a  block  and  varnished,,  and  become  an  in- 
teresting specimen  in  the  museum. 

If  near  the  seaside,  lobsters,  crabs,  and  shrimps  may  also  be 
collected  and  studied  in  the  same  way,  but  these  larger  ones 
should  be  cured  with  glycerine,  alcohol,  or  corrosive  subli- 
mate to  keep  them. 

Tell  the  children  how  these  strange  creatures  may  lose  a 
leg,  or  any  single  part,  and  another  will  grow  in  its  place. 
Examine  the  eyes  with  a  microscope  and  show  them  the 
many  parts  each  possesses. 

III.  Prog's  £ggs. 

Study  their  form,  size,  and  color.  Get  the  children  to 
discover  that  the  eggs  are  laid  in  chains  or  strings  of  white, 
having  the  yolks  scattered  along  at  regular  distances. 

Put  the  eggs  in  a  glass  vessel  and  have  pupils  record  ob- 
servations from  time  to  time.  Interest  will  reach  the  pitch 
of  enthusiasm  when  the  tadpoles  begin  to  hatch. 

As  the  weeks  roll  along  the  date  of  each  stage  of  devel- 
opment should  be  noted  and  recorded,  so  that  when  the 
perfect  frog  is  developed  the  time  since  the  eggs  were  found 
should  be  known. 

This  is  real  scientific  work,  and  these  observations  are  of 
incalculable  value  to  the  child  and  to  the  teacher. 

Procure  a  large  number  of  bottles,  with  wide  mouths, 
getting  as  clear  glass  as  possible.  Place  some  of  the  eggs 
in  one,  add  alcohol  or  dilute  glycerine  and  label  it  No.  i. 


1 62  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

In  No.  2  put  the  smallest  polliwogs. 
"     "     3    "     "     larger  ones. 
"     "     4    "     "     first  signs  of  legs. 
"     "     5    "     "     later  leg  development. 
"     "     6    "     "     diminishing  tail. 
"     "     7    "     "     perfect  frog. 

This  collection  shows  every  stage  in  the  development  of 
the  frog,  and  is  always  on  hand  for  reference. 

Similar  collections  to  illustrate  the  metamorphosis  of  in- 
sects are  always  of  use  in  nature  study. 

THIRD  WALK. 
TREES.     I. 

Take  your  pupils  out  for  a  walk.  Make  it  a  short  walk, 
proportioned  to  the  age  of  the  pupils.  The  lowest  grades 
should  never  go  far  beyond  the  school-grounds.  There  is 
abundance  of  material  there.  A  higher  grade  may  go  short 
distances.  The  pupils  of  still  higher  classes  may  venture  a 
half  mile  or  farther. 

Make  the  walk  interesting.  Let  nothing  escape  the 
attention. 

See  how  the  tree  yonder  has  a  trunk  that  runs  upward 
through  the  branches  to  the  very  top.  Yonder  is  a  tree 
whose  trunk  is  all  broken  up  into  branches.  Note  how 
some  branches  ascend,  others  are  horizontal,  others  arch, 
and  others  droop. 

Call  attention  to  rjie  various  hues  of  green  in  foliage — the 
whitish  green  of  some  willows,  the  dense  green  of  oaks,  the 
tender  green  of  maples.  Teach  them  to  observe  the  gray 
bark  of  the  beech,  white  birch,  rough  black  oak,  and  smooth 
ruddy  cherry. 

After  walking  some  distance  ask  all  to  be  seated.  Let 
us  sit  under  this  fine  old  tree.  See  how  the  roots 
spread  out  over  the  ground.  Do  you  think  its  roots  are  as 
large  as  its  branches  ?  Why  do  its  roots  spread  out  so  ? 
To  gather  food  and  moisture,  and  to  hold  the  tree  firmly  in 


Walks  with  the  Children.  163 

the  ground.  What  kind  of  a  tree  is  it  ?  How  do  you 
know  that  this  is  a  beech  ?  Its  bark  is  gray  and  smooth. 
Its  leaves  ?  Saw-edged,  smooth,  pointed.  Now  each  of 
you  take  as  much  ground  as  you  can  cover  with  your  hand- 
kerchief. Each  one  take  out  his  handkerchief  and  spread 
it  smoothly  on  the  ground.  Now  when  I  say  "  Ready  "  you 
may  take  them  up.  When  you  take  them  up,  see  how  many 
things  you  can  find  on  the  ground  under  the  handkerchiefs. 
"  Ready." 

Etta. — There  is  nothing  under  my  handkerchief. 

Teacher. — Oh,  yes,  there  is.  Here  is  something.  What 
is  it? 

Etta, — An  old  beechnut. 

Teacher. — What  are  these  brown  scales  ? 

Etta. — They  are  from  the  buds  last  spring. 

Teacher. — What  have  you  got,  Harry  ? 

Harry.— -I  have  found  some  beechnuts,  some  pods  that 
used  to  have  nuts  in  them,  some  bud-scales,  and  a  dried 
beech-leaf. 

Martha. — I  have  found  a  young  beech-tree  only  six 
inches  tall. 

Teacher. — Scrape  up  some  soil  and  tell  me  what  you  find 
in  it. 

Jane. — This  dirt  is  full  of  pieces  of  leaves. 

Martha. — There  are  pieces  of  leaves  and  shucks  of  nuts 
in  it. 

Ida. — The  soft  parts  of  the  leaves  are  all  rotted  away, 
but  the  stems  and  veins  are  left. 

Etta. — The  soil  is  made  up  of  rotten  leaves  and  bark. 
There  is  fine  sand  in  it. 

Teacher. — Save  these  things  and  examine  them  carefully. 
This  is  soil. 

Harry. — Here  is  a  maple-key,  too. 

Teacher. — How  did  a  maple-key  come  under  a  beech- 
tree  ? 

Martha. — The  wind  blew  it  here. 

Teacher. — Do   you     see    the    wing   on    the    maple-key? 


164  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

When  it  fell  from  the  mother  tree,  its  wing  made  it  turn 
swiftly  round  and  round,  so  that  it  could  not  get  to  the 
ground  at  once.  Then  the  wind  blew  hard,  and  the  maple- 
key  was  blown  away  and  away  far  from  the  mother  tree 
until  it  fell  down  here. 

Ida. — Oh,  here  is  such  a  funny  flower.  It  has  no  leaves, 
and  it  is  white  all  over. 

Teacher. — Yes,  that  is  called  beechdrops.  It  grows  on 
beech-roots.  It  is  a  plant  that  grows  on  other  plants.  Let 
us  dig  away  the  soil  and  find  the  root. 

Jane. — Oh,  it  is  scaly  at  the  base.  It  grows  to  the  root 
of  the  beech-tree.  I  cannot  pull  it  off. 

Teacher. — When  one  plant  or  animal  lives  on  another,  we 
call  it  a  parasite.  We  will  look  on  roots  of  other  trees  and 
find  other  kinds  of  parasites.  See  the  leaves  of  this  beech- 
tree.  Let  us  gather  some  to  take  home  with  us.  See  the 
edges  of  these  leaves.  How  are  they  placed  on  the  stem  ? 
Are  the  first  leaves  of  your  young  beech-sprout  opposite, 
Martha  ? 

Martha. — Oh,  yes,  they  are  opposite.  But  the  leaves  on 
the  tree  are  not  opposite  ;  they  are  alternate. 

Teacher. — After  the  first  pair  of  true  leaves,  which  are 
always  opposite,  the  beech  puts  forth  alternate  leaves.  Do 
you  know  what  beech  wood  looks  like,  Jane  ? 

Jane. — No,  ma'am.     May  I  break  off  a  branch  to  see? 

Teacher. — Yes,  and  we  will  have  the  boys  cut  off  a  larger 
branch  to  take  home.  Then  we  can  saw  it,  and  see  what 
kind  of  wood  it  has.  Harry,  you  may  measure  the  tree 
around,  three  feet  from  the  ground. 

In  like  manner  bring  out  the  facts  : 

i,  That  the  beechnut  is  three-sided  and  has  three  sharp 
edges  ;  2,  that  the  pod  which  encloses  the  beechnut  has 
small  prickles  on  the  outside  and  is  smooth  within  ;  3,  that 
the  bud-scales  are  thin,  dry,  brown,  and  glossy;  4,  that  soil 
is  largely  made  rich  by  decomposing  vegetable  matter  ;  5, 
that  the  young  beech-tree  has  for  its  first  leaves  the  halves 
of  the  nut  ;  that  these  are  pale  green  above  and  white 


Walks  with  the  Children. 


165 


beneath;  that  the  second  pair  of  leaves  is  opposite  and  the 
succeeding  leaves  alternate,  etc.,  etc. 

The  lesson  may  be  varied  by  taking  some  other  tree,  and 
special  forms  of  trunk — excurrent  (unbroken),  deliquescent 


FIG.  40.— WHITE  OAK.    DRAWN  BY  JENNIE  MILLER. 

(much  broken) — may  be  brought  out.  Pines,  spruces,  hick- 
ory, are  types  of  the  first  class.  Elm,  maple,  oak,  represent 
the  second  class. 

II. 

The  best  time  for  studying  trees  to  get  their  form  and 


1 66  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

mode  of  branching  is  after  the  leaves  fall.  This  forms 
good  material  for  work  in  winter,  when  other  natural 
objects  are  hard  to  get. 

It  is  well  not  to  go  too  far,  but  to  map  out  a  certain 
definite  extent  of  territory  and  study  the  trees  in  it  first. 
To  one  whose  observation  has  not  been  directed  to  it,  it 
will  be  amazing  what  a  wide  range  of  trees  is  to  be  found 
within  very  narrow  limits  of  almost  any  school-house.  This 
does  not,  of  course,  apply  to  crowded  city  schools. 

I  will  here  give  the  plan  followed  in  the  Chatham  school. 
We  took  a  radius  of  about  forty  rods,  and  observed  the 
trees  within  those  limits.  We  began  with  a  white  oak.  It 
was  first  drawn  as  seen  from  the  school-room  windows.  At 
recess  the  pupils  went  over  to  measure  it  three  feet  from 
the  ground,  and'  to  bring  back  bark,  twigs,  acorns,  dead 
leaves,  and  anything  else  from  the  tree.  The  best  drawing 
was  reproduced  on  the  blackboard,  and  from  this  diagram 
the  general  form  and  manner  of  branching  were  brought 
out.  Its  sturdy,  rugged,  storm-defying  attitude  was  noted. 
One  bright  imaginative  pupil  remarked  that  the  oak  seemed 
to  be  ready  to  shake  his  fist  at  the  winds.  The  leaf  was 
drawn  and  its  outline  carefully  noted.  Its  tough  texture 
and  the  texture  of  the  branches  also  came  in  for  a  share  of 
the  study.  The  topics  White  Oak,  (i)  Its  Uses,  and  (2) 
Its  Geographical  Range,  were  given  to  classes,  the  former  to 
younger  and  the  latter  to  older  pupils.  The  "Charter 
Oak  "  was  talked  about. 

III. 

A  fine  symmetrical  pin-oak  grows  just  back  from  the 
school  in  the  centre  of  a  wide  pasture.  It  has  never  been 
cramped  by  other  trees,  and  so  it  has  been  free  to  expand 
on  all  sides.  The  pin-oak  follows  the  white  oak  for  two 
reasons  :  i,  because  both  were  oaks  ;  2,  because  both  were 
handy  to  the  school.  The  straight  central  shaft,  the  finer 
and  more  graceful  branches,  the  smoother  bark  and  every 
way  more  elegant  appearance,  furnished  topics  for  much 
conversation. 


Walks  -with  the  Children. 


,67 


Samples  of  wood,  bark,  and  leaves  were  also  obtained 
and  studied.  The  leaves  are  noticeably  different.  The 
white  oak  with  its  broad  rounded  lobes  and  sharp  narrow 
sinuses  is  the  very  opposite  of  the  pin-oak,  whose  lobes 


FIG.  41.— PIN-OAK.    (DRAWN  BY  HOMER  WAGNER.) 


are  sharp  and  whose  sinuses  are  broad  and  rounded.  The 
fact  that  both  these  oaks  keep  their  leaves  late  into  the 
winter  was  not  unnoticed. 


i68 


Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 


IV. 


The  elm-tree  was  one  of  the  earliest  trees  observed.     Its 
trunk  is  so  different  from  that  of  the  pin-oak  in  branching 


FIG.  42. — ELM.    (DRAWN  BY  B.  KIRKPATRICK.) 

(deliquescent),  and  so  unlike  the  white  oak  in  outline,  that 
it  forms  a  pleasing  contrast.  Its  branches,  flung  here  and 
there,  always  tipped  with  slender  sprays,  make  it  a  favorite 


Walks,  with  the  Children. 


169 


wherever  shade  and  graceful  beauty  are  desired.  The 
lichen-covered  bark  is  also  deserving  mention.  The  leaves 
are  hard  to  get  perfect,  owing  to  the  myriads  of  beetles 


FIG.  43. — GREEN  ASH.    (DRAWN  BY  MARGARET  LYNCH.) 

which  feed  upon  them.    Parasites  seem  to  love  the  elm  more 
than  any  other  tree. 

Reference  was  made  to  the  famous  Washington  Elm. 

The  veining  of  the  leaf  is  also  peculiar,  and  the  doubly 


17°  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

serrated  margin  presents  a  marked  contrast  to  the  oaks  of 
the  preceding  lessons. 

V. 

The  next  tree  observed  was  a  large  green  ash,  growing 
not  far  away.  In  addition  to  the  preceding  line  of  study 
on  trees  more  attention  was  given  to  the  wood.  Some  very 
pretty  specimens  of  ash  were  obtained,  and  together  with 
cross-sections,  radial  sections,  and  tangential  sections  of 
the  stem  were  mounted  upon  a  large  card.  Later  leaves, 
flowers,  and  fruit  were  also  mounted  here,  so  that  the  ash- 
tree  told  its  own  story  by  means  of  samples  of  all  its  parts. 
Here  again  we  found  novelty  in  the  compound  leaves  with 
their  cuspidate  apexes  and  serrate  margins. 

The  uses  of  ash  brought  out  much  material  for  composi- 
tion-work. 

VI. 

The  poplar  was  next  studied.  This  particular  tree  was 
selected  to  show  how  early  trimming  of  branches  often  en- 
tirely changes  the  form  of  the  tree.  Why  did  men  cut  off 
its  top  before  planting  ?  Why  did  all  these  branches  start  ? 
Because  of  dormant  buds  which  started  only  because  the 
main  branches  were  cut  off.  The  leaf  also  is  of  a  different 
type  from  those  studied.  The  difference  between  trees 
pruned  and  those  allowed  to  grow  in  their  own  way  shows 
in  this  instance  the  wisdom  of  pruning  for  shade. 


VII. 

The  above  was  the  last  lesson  given  on  special  trees  in 
school.  Each  pupil  was  then  required  to  draw  and  write  a 
description  of  two  trees  not  previously  studied,  growing 
somewhere  between  home  and  school.  This  resulted  in 
drawings  and  descriptions  of  the  following  trees  :  , 

The  sycamore  with  its  wide  irregular  mode  of  branching, 
its  brown-gray  bark  peeling  off  in  large  patches  exposing  the 


Walks  with  the  Children. 


171 


light  bark  underneath,  the  broad-toothed  leaves  with  their 
peculiar  caplike  petioles  for  fitting  over  the  young  buds  of 


FIG.  44.— POPLAR.    (DRAWN  BY  MATTIE  ALEXANDER.) 


next  year,  and  its  interesting  balls  of  fruit,  furnished  a  re- 
port from  one  member  of  the  class. 


172 


Lessons  in  Nature  Studj. 


VIII. 


Another  student  had  an  account  of  the  tulip-tree  near  her 
home.     The  valuable  wood,  so  extensively  used  under  the 


FIG.  45. — SYCAMORE.    (DRAWN  BY  CARRIE  WARD.) 


name  of  "  white  wood  "  in  inside  work,  was  mentioned. 
Drawings  and  pressed  specimens  of  the  gorgeous  tuliplike 
flowers  and  the  odd-looking  cucurnberlike  fruit  were  shown. 


Walks  with  the  Children.  1 7  3 

Some  had  never  seen  the  leaf,  and  were  much  surprised  to 
see  the  strange  cut-off  appearance  of  its  apex. 


FIG.  46.— TULIP.    (DRAWN  BY  IRVING  LUM.) 

IX. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  lessons  was  on  the  white 
birch.  These  trees  usually  grow  in  clumps  of  from  three  to 
twelve,  appearing  to  start  from  one  root.  This,  of  course, 


174  Lessons  in  Nature  Study » 

renders  the  separate  parts  unsymmetrical,  but  the  clump 
usually  forms  a  well-rounded  cluster.    The  sprays  are  always 


m 

FIG.  47. — WHITE  BIRCH.    (DRAWN  BY  WILLIE  ELDER.) 

fine  and  feathery,  being  extremely  delicate.  These  trees 
are  also  striking  in  having  such  white  trunks,  while  the  finer 
branches  are  darker,  often  being  dark  red  brown  in  color. 


Walks  with  the  Children. 


'75 


Here  also  we  found  another  kind  of  bark,  namely,  one 
consisting  of  many  thin  layers  easily  splitting  off  from  the 
tree  trunk.  The  use  of  birch  bark  by  the  American  Indians 
in  building  canoes  and  wigwams  added  no  little  interest  to 
the  study  of  this  tree.  Observations  on  the  bark  brought 


FIG.  48.— PERSIMMON.    (DRAWN  BY  ROBERT  LUM.) 

out  the  fact  of  its  toughness,  flexibility,  smoothness,  etc. 
It  required  some  close  observation  to  discover  why  the  out- 
side is  so  white  while  the  underlying  layers  are  brown.  At 
length  it  was  decided  that  the  whiteness  is  due  to  the 
bleaching  action  of  sun  and  rain.  Longfellow's  lines  in 
Hiawatha,  beginning,  "  Give  me  of  your  bark,  Q  birch- 


1 76  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

tree,"  were  learned.  The  grammar  class  was  given  this 
stanza  for  parsing  and  analysis  on  the  same  day.  Pupils 
were  asked  to  be  on  the  lookout  for  another  kind  of  tree 
whose  bark  resembles  that  of  the  birch.  This  was  to  intro- 
duce the  wild  cherry,  with  its  rich,  shining,  red  bark  and 
valuable  wood. 

X. 

Interest  in  trees  was  now  becoming  so  great  that  several 
uncommon  trees  were  observed,  drawn,  and  described  by 
various  pupils. 

The  following  description  and  the  accompanying  drawing 
were  done  by  a  pupil  whose  interest  in  trees  had  become 
very  marked  : 

The  Persimmon-tree. 

(Description  and  drawing  by  Robert  Lum.) 

This  persimmon-tree  grows  in  Mrs.  Day's  pasture  near  Black 
Brook.  It  is  really  two  large  trees  springing  from  the  same 
root.  The  trunks  are  very  straight  and  give  off  but  few 
branches. 

The  bark  is  rough  and  cracked  somewhat  like  an  oak  bark. 
The  wood  is  tough  and  light-colored.  The  branches  are  irregu- 
lar and  some  of  them  are  very  much  bent. 

The  little  branches  and  twigs  are  crooked.  The  leaves  are 
shaped  like  cherry-leaves,  but  the  veins  are  not  much  like  the 
veins  of  the  cherry-tree.  The  veins  are  crooked  like  the  branches. 
They  bend  around  and  come  back  again  to  the  mid-rib.  Only 
a  few  veins  go  out  to  the  margin. 

I  never  saw  the  flowers  of  this  tree,  but  the  fruit  is  very  good 
after  frost  comes.  Before  frost  the  fruit  tastes  like  alum. 

Suggestion  to  the  Teacher. — In  concluding  this  series  of 
lessons  on  trees  I  am  led  to  make  some  general  remarks 
upon  the  study  of  woods  and  barks.  In  the  beginning  it  is 
well  to  have  a  few  kinds  of  wood  to  study.  Any  large  boy 
will  procure  several  varieties,  and  any  carpenter  can  supply 
numerous  kinds  to  start  with. 

Preparation. — Pieces  two  or  three  inches  in  diameter  and 
six  to  eight  inches  long  may  be  sawn  from  branches  of  trees. 
These  should  be  thoroughly  dried  for  a  long  time  to  prevent 
checking.  When  dried,  cross-sections  should  be  made  one 
inch  thick,  and  each  section  should  then  be  cut  through  the 


Walks  with  the  Children.  177 

centre  and  also  near  one  side.  Such  a  way  of  cutting  gives 
the  wood  in  three  aspects,  i.e.,  radial,  tangential^  and  cross- 
grain  or  transverse.  When  neatly  sandpapered,  they  may 
be  treated  with  some  clear  varnish  to  give  them  a  finish.  It 
is  advisable  to  varnish  only  half  of  each  aspect.  This  will 
show  how  each  wood  appears  plain  and  dressed. 

What  to  Note. — In  giving  the  lessons  the  thickness  of 
the  bark,  its  color,  texture,  smell,  etc.,  the  ring  and  rays  in 
the  wood,  sap,  wood,  pith,  and  bast,  coarseness,  hardness, 
etc.,  should  all  be  noted.  The  amount  of  pith  should  also 
be  noted,  as  woods  differ  very  greatly  in  this  particular. 

Arrangement. — There  are  many  ways  of  classifying  and 
arranging  woods.  If  the  specimens  are  large,  they  may  be 
labelled  and  arranged  in  rows  upon  the  shelves  of  a  case. 
Smaller  sized  specimens  may  be  arranged  in  boxes.  A  very 
convenient  way  is  to  collect  specimens  one  inch  in  diameter 
and  three  inches  long.  These  may  be  glued  or  wired  to  a 
board  or  stiff  card.  A  good  way  is  to  have  each  piece 
mounted  with  a  cross-section  just  above  it.  Such  a  collec- 
tion may  be  placed  upon  the  walls  to  ornament  the  school- 
room. 

It  should  not  be  forgotten  that  the  mere  act  of  collecting^ 
however  good  that  may  be,  is  not  the  end  in  studies  of  this 
kind.  Pupils  should  know  their  specimens  well.  They 
should  handle  them  until  thoroughly  familiar  with  their 
minutest  details.  To  this  end  it  is  often  good  to  give 
pupil  a  mixed  assortment  of  woods  to  arrange  as  seat-work. 
Another  stimulating  exercise  is  to  play  the  game  of  trees. 
This  is  to  have  pupils  take  turns  in  describing  some  particu- 
lar kind  of  tree  or  some  individual  tree  and  have  the  others 
guess  its  kind. 

FOURTH  WALK. 

Farming— A  Brook.  :  ; 

In  this  walk  the  class  is  not  supposed  to  go  more  than  a 
half  mile., 


178  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

Here  is  Mr.  Jones'  farm.  What  has  he  planted  in  this 
field  ?  What  is  growing  in  that  field  ?  How  many  acres 
are  there  in  this  field  ?  Charlie  may  find  out  how  many 
acres  and  how  many  bushels  of  corn,  oats,  or  wheat  Mr. 
Jones  expects  to  get.  That  would  be  how  many  bushels  to 
the  acre  ?  What  kind  of  soil  is  this  ?  Is  sandy  soil  as  wet 
as  clayey  soil  ?  What  crops  grow  best  on  loose  sandy  loam  ? 
On  heavy  clay  soil  ? 

Here  is  a  hill  or  knoll.  Let  us  see  if  the  corn  grows  bet- 
ter on  one  side  than  another.  On  which  side  is  the  best 
corn  ?  Why  ?  What  kind  of  weather  is  best  for  corn  ? 

Obtain  direct  answers  where  possible,  and  require  pupils 
to  find  out  when  ready  answers  are  not  forthcoming.  These 
questions  will  arouse  Mr.  Jones,  and  he  will  see  that  the 
children  are  inquiring  after  practical  things. 

Here  is  a  haystack.  Let  us  see  how  large  it  is.  How 
many  tons  of  hay  does  it  contain  ?  How  long  will  it  feed 
the  stock  ?  When  was  this  hay  cut  ?  What  fodder  plants 
are  in  it  ?  Timothy,  blue-grass,  red  and  white  clover,  etc. 

Let  us  now  go  down  into  the  meadow.  Why  does  Mr. 
Jones  not  cultivate  the  meadow  ?  Why  does  he  prefer  the 
meadow  for  pasture  ?  Yes,  it  is  too  wet  to  cultivate,  and 
there  is  a  brook  where  the  cows  can  drink. 

Where  does  this  brook  rise  ?  In  what  direction  does  it 
flow  ?  Into  what  does  it  empty  ?  Why  does  it  bend  here  ? 
What  makes  it  run  faster  there  ?  Let  us  make  a  bridge  out 
of  this  log.  Now  suppose  we  were  to  play  that  the  other 
side  of  the  brook  went  farther  and  farther  away  until  it  got 
over  yonder  by  the  woods,  what  would  we  call  it?  Yes,  it 
would  not  be  a  brook  then,  but  a  river.  How  many  of  you 
ever  saw  a  river  ?  What  river  was  it  ? 

Sometimes  rivers  are  very  wide,  so  wide  that  you  cannot 
see  across  them.  Why  does  this  brook  flow  this  way  and 
not  that  ?  Why  does  it  not  run  over  its  banks  ?  In  what 
season  is  the  brook  highest  ?  Why  ?  Lowest  ?  Why  ? 

Let  us  walk  up  to  the  brook.  Does  it  grow  larger  or 
smaller  ?  Why  ? 


Walks  with  the  Children.  179 

If  the  brook  be  a  small  one  whose  source  is  not  far  away, 
as  is  the  case  with  those  which  flow  out  of  springs,  the  walk 
may  be  followed  to  the  source,  and  all  changes  in  the  direc- 
tion, size,  and  nature  may  be  noted.  When  the  spring  is 
reached,  such  questions  as  the  following  may  be  asked  : 

Here  is  the  source  of  the  brook.  It  comes  from  the 
ground.  How  did  the  ground  get  it  ?  Why  does  it  come 
out  here  ? 

Lead  them  to  see  that  it  is  merely  rain-water  that  has 
soaked  into  the  earth  until  it  has  found  a  layer  of  clay  or 
rock  on  which  to  run  until  here  it  has  reached  the  sur- 
face. 

(Many  things,  such  as  insects,  crayfish,  minnows,  lizards, 
frogs,  and  turtles,  can  be  caught  on  this  expedition,  and  car- 
ried to  school  for  future  lessons  ;  the  method  of  using  them 
has  been  given  previously.) 

If  not  too  large,  the  stream  should  be  mapped.  A  map  of 
the  meadow  might  at  least  be  made,  and  a  relief -map  of 
Mr.  Jones'  farm  would  be  of  much  value  to  the  one  who 
made  it.  The  walk  may  be  followed  by  a  language  lesson 
next  day  telling  the  story  of  the  previous  day's  expedition. 

HINTS  FOR  LANGUAGE-WORK  ON  THE  PRECEDING. 

The  Farm. 

In  what  direction  from  the  school-house  is  Mr.  Jones' 
farm  ?  What  kind  of  a  house  has  Mr.  Jones  ?  What  direc- 
tion does  it  face  ?  How  many  acres  has  he  ?  Is  it  all  culti- 
vated ?  How  much  meadow  ?  How  much  woodland  ? 
How  far  from  the  house  to  the  meadow  ?  What  crops  has 
Mr.  Jones  planted  ?  What  ones  are  doing  best  ?  Why  ? 
What  kind  of  fences  has  he  ?  Are  they  in  good  condition  ? 
When  will  Mr.  Jones  reap  his  wheat  ?  What  will  he  do 
after  reaping  ?  Where  will  he  take  it  ?  Why  ?  How  much 
will  the  miller  charge  to  grind  it  ?  Tell  all  you  can  about 
making  flour, 


i8o  Lessons  on  the  Human  Body. 

FIFTH  WALK. 
A  Hill. 

Gravity. — How  many  of  you  have  sleds  ? 

What  do  you  do  with  them  ?     Draw,  ride  on,  etc. 

When  do  you  ride  on  them  ? 

Did  you  ever  ride  on  a  sled  when  no  one  drew  it  ?  How 
could  you  do  it  ? 

How  did  you  get  up  to  the  top  of  the  hill  ?  What  made 
3rour  sled  come  down  ?  What  is  the  highest  part  called  ? 
Top. 

What  is  the  lowest  part  called  ?     Bottom. 

What  is  the  part  called  where  you  rode  ?     Slope  or   side. 

If  the  top  of  the  hill  were  very  much  higher,  so  high  that 
it  went  up  to  the  clouds,  what  would  we  called  it? 
Mountain. 

If  you  stood  on  the  top  of  a  hill  or  a  mountain  and  the 
mountain  should  go  away  and  leave  you  up  there,  what 
would  you  do  ?  Fall. 

What  would  make  you  fall  ?  There  would  not  be  any- 
thing to  hold  me  up. 

Yes,  when  there  is  nothing  under  us  to  hold  us,  we  fall  to 
the  earth. 

The  earth  pulls  us.  Why  does  the  sled  slide  down  the 
slope  ?  Because  the  earth  pulls  it  down. 

Why    is  it  harder  to  draw  a  sled   uphill    than    down 
The  earth  pulls  it  back  all  the  time. 

Erosion. — When  it  rains  on  a  hill-top,  where  does  the 
water  go  ?  Yes,  some  soaks  in  and  some  runs  off.  When 
the  water  soaks  in,  it  makes  the  soil  softer.  How  does  the 
water  look  that  runs  off  the  sides  of  the  hill  ?  Yes,  it  is 
muddy.  What  is  the  running  water  doing  to  the  hill  ?  Yes, 
wearing  it  away.  What  will  become  of  the  hill  some  day  ? 
Yes,  it  will  all  wear  away  and  become  flat. 

Weathering — But  there  is  something  else  in  the  hill 
besides  the  soil  and  gravel.  Henry,  what  is  under  the  soil 
in  the  hill  ?  How  do  you  know  that  there  is  rock  under 


Walks  with  the  Children.  i&i 

the  soil  ?  When  the  rain  has  washed  off  all  the  soil,  what 
will  be  left  ?  Yes,  the  rock  is  the  skeleton  of  the  hill. 
A  hill  has  bones  like  a  little  boy  or  girl.  What  are  the 
bones  of  a  hill  ?  Yes,  rocks  are  the  bones  of  hills.  They 
are  the  bones  of  the  whole  earth,  too.  Now  when  the  soil 
is  all  washed  from  the  rocks,  what  will  happen  ?  Here  is 
a  piece  of  rock  with  a  lichen  growing  upon  it.  Charlie 
may  dig  off  some  of  the  lichen  with  his  knife  carefully. 
What  is  under  the  lichen  ?  Yes,  there  is  a  little  dust  under 
the  lichen.  How  did  it  come  there  ?  I  will  tell  you.  Rocks 
are  slowly  crumbling  in  the  air.  This  dust  was  once  a  part 
of  the  rock.  The  lichen,  growing  on  the  rock,  took  root  in 
the  dust  and  feeds  on  the  rock. 

"  The  granite  rocks  disorganize  to  feed  the  hungry  moss  they  bear, 
And  forest  trees  drink  daily  life  from  out  the  viewless  air." 

You  know  now  what  the  first  line  of  this  stanza  means. 
The  rest  of  it  we  will  understand  later.  Now  if  a  lichen 
grows  in  a  little  crack  in  a  rock,  and  the  rain  falls  on 
it,  it  will  soak  it  up  like  a  sponge.  What  would  happen 
if  a  little  crack  in  the  rock,  all  full  of  wet  lichen,  were  to 
freeze  ?  Yes,  it  would  become  full  of  ice.  And  when  ice 
freezes  what  happens  ?  Oh,  yes,  the  ice  bulges.  What  will 
that  do  to  the  rock  ?  Split  it  apart.  The  lichens  growing 
on  the  rock  then  help  to  break  it  up  by  changing  the  rock 
to  dust,  and  by  holding  the  water  so  that  when  it  freezes  it 
can  split  the  rocks  and  so  help  tear  down  the  hill.  Only 
see  what  humble  things  God  takes  to  do  his  work. 

SIXTH    WALK. 

The  Ground, 

Did  you  ever  dig  angleworms  for  fish-bait  ?  About  how 
deep  do  you  have  to  go  to  find  the  worms  ?  Yes,  you  are 
right.  That  depends  upon  how  dry  the  soil  is.  Did  you 
ever,  in  digging,  come  to  a  different  kind  of  earth  below  the 
top-soil  ?  Oh,  yes  ;  it  was  of  a  lighter  color  than  the  top- 
soil. 


182  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

We  will  call  it  subsoil,  or  undersoil.  What  else  do  we 
sometimes  find  in  digging  ?  Oh,  yes,  and  stones  are  hard  to 
dig  out  when  they  are  large.  Are  stones  living  things  ? 
Oh,  no,  there  is  no  life  in  them.  They  are  pieces  of  rock 
broken  off  and  buried  in  the  soil.  Can  you  tell  me  any- 
thing which  stones  can  be  used  for  ?  Oh,  yes,  we  use  them 
for  building  foundations  of  houses.  Some  kinds  of  stones 
are  very  valuable.  We  call  them  precious  stones.  Do  you 
not  know  any  other  valuable  things  that  are  taken  from  the 
ground  ?  Oh,  iron,  copper,  gold,  and  silver  are  dug  out 
of  the  ground.  Stones  and  other  things  dug  from  the 
ground  are  called  minerals. 

Minerals — Metals. 

Some  minerals,  like  gold,  iron,  silver,  copper,  and  zinc,  are 
called  metals. 

Quarrying. 

The  getting  of  stone  out  of  the  ground  is  quarrying. 
Some  of  you  have  seen  a  stone-quarry.  Others  dig  down 
very  deep  after  the  metals.  These  men  are  called  miners, 
and  what  they  do  is  called  mining.  Let  us  now  look  at 
these  pieces  of  stone  ;  they  were  dug  out  of  a  cistern.  Are 
they  not  all  alike  ?  See  how  the  outside  of  these  stones  is 
softer  and  lighter  than  the  inside.  That  is  because  these 
stones  are  becoming  softer  and  wearing  away  from  the  out- 
side. The  rain  and  frost  help  to  tear  away  the  little  pieces 
from  the  outside  of  the  stones.  We  call  it  weathering,  be- 
cause the  weather  makes  the  stones  rot.  If  you  go  to  a 
hillside  where  there  has  been  a  deep  cut  made,  you  will 
often  see  top-soil,  then  subsoil  full  of  pieces  of  stone,  then 
the  rock  underneath.  The  frost  has  broken  off  pieces  from 
the  rock,  and  these  pieces  are  the  stones  in  the  subsoil. 

Soil  and  Subsoil. 

We  will  dismiss  ten  minutes  earlier,  as  I  want  you  to  go 
up  on  Long  Hill  to-day,  at  the  close  of  school,  where  Mr. 
Doran  is  grading  down  the  street. 


Walks  with  the  Children.  183 

I  want  you  to  look  first  at  the  upper  surface,  where  the 
grass  grows.  Robert  may  get  us  a  handful  and  we  will 
examine  it.  What  do  you  see  in  it  ?  Remains  of  leaves, 
rotten  wood,  etc.  Examine  with  this  glass.  "  Oh,  I  see 
grains  of  fine  white  sand  mixed  with  it." 

Yes,  we  call  it  loam.  This  loam  is  rich  with  remains  of 
dead  vegetation.  Now  look  just  below  the  top-soil.  What 
do  we  call  this  ?  Yes,  it  is  called  subsoil,  because  it  is  under 
the  soil.  How  does  its  color  differ  from  that  of  the  soil  ? 
Yes,  it  is  not  so  dark.  Examine  the  subsoil.  It  has  more 
sand  and  clay  in  it  also.  How  deep  is  the  top-soil  ?  The 
subsoil  ?  What  comes  next  ?  Rock.  Yes,  here  is  hard 
rock.  Can  you  not  see  where  the  top  of  the  rock  is  weath- 
ering into  subsoil  ?  See  the  cracks  running  downward 
through  the  rock  ?  It  is  where  the  frost  has  split  the  rocks 
apart.  Willie,  please  to  break  open  a  piece  of  this  rock  ; 
we  will  see  how  it  looks  inside. 

See  how  dark  the  inside  is,  while  the  outside  is 
much  lighter.  Is  it  harder  within  or  without  ?  Yes,  the 
outside  is  softer,  for  it  has  begun  to  weather.  The  subsoil 
is  formed  of  this  rock  after  it  has  weathered.  Let  us  take 
some  of  this  subsoil  and  some  of  the  top-soil  in  these  paper 
bags. 

When  we  get  back  to  school,  we  must  plant  something  in 
each  and  see  which  grows  the  best.  Soils  vary  greatly  in 
the  amount  of  clay,  sand,  and  vegetable  matter  they  con- 
tain. Which  would  be  the  principal  part  of  the  soil  in 
Great  Swamp  ?  Yes,  it  is  nearly  pure  vegetable  matter. 
Would  the  top-soil  be  thicker  or  thinner  down  yonder  in 
the  meadow  than  up  here  on  the  hilltop  ?  To  be  good  a 
soil  should  possess  both  sand,  clay,  and  vegetable  mould. 
How,  then,  might  you  make  a  sandy  farm  more  fertile  ? 
How  would  you  make  a  swampy  place  better  after  having 
drained  it  ?  Why  do  the  people  in  the  cranberry  marshes 
spread  sand  on  the  black  peaty  soil  ?  What  would  you  do  if 
you  owned  a  field  having  a  heavy  clay  soil  ?  I  wonder  if  we 
can  find  what  part  of  soil  is  made  up  of  each  of  these 


184  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

things.  We  will  dig  up  a  few  pounds  of  top-soil  and  put  it 
on  a  board.  Now  let  us  mix  it  until  it  is  fine  and  all  alike 
throughout  Now  let  us  weigh  out  exactly  a  pound. 

Charlie,  can  you  weigh  it  ?  Here  is  a  pound.  How 
many  ounces  is  that  ?  Now  we  will  feel  of  it.  Is  it  dry  ? 
No,  it  is  moist.  How  can  we  get  the  water  out  of  this  soil  ? 
That  is  right.  We  must  dry  it  We  will  put  it  in  paper  and 
carry  it  back  to  school  and  put  it  under  the  stove  or  over 
the  heater  for  several  hours.  Mary  may  stir  it  at  recess, 
and  Georgie  may  stir  it  at  close  of  school.  To-morrow  we 
will  weigh  it  once  more  to  see  if  it  has  lost  any  of  the  water. 
When  the  soil  has  had  time  to  dry  in  the  air,  have  it  weighed 
once  more.  It  will  be  found  to  have  lost  some  of  its 
weight.  This  is  called  "  air-drying."  Record  the  loss  of 
weight  by  drying.  Later  question  as  follows  :  The  soil  lost 
some  of  its  weight  when  we  dried  it.  Did  all  the  water  pass 
away  ?  Is  it  perfectly  dry  ?  Let  us  see.  Here  is  a  tin  pan. 
Let  us  put  the  soil  in  the  pan  and  set  it  in  a  hot  oven.  Per- 
haps Mrs.  Martin,  across  the  way,  will  let  us  use  her  oven.  I 
will  ask  her  myself.  We  will  put  it  into  the  oven  and  leave 
it  there  until  noon.  How  long  will  that  be,  Charlie  ?  Yes, 
it  will  be  nearly  three  hours.  This  is  called  "  kiln-drying  " 
or  "  fire-drying." 

When  dried  thoroughly,  we  will  weigh  it  again.  Now 
how  much  has  it  lost  ?  Now  if  we  could  get  rid  of  the  veg- 
etable matter,  we  would  be  able  to  tell  how  much  mineral 
matter  there  is  in  this  pound  of  soil. 

How  can  we  get  rid  of  the  vegetable  matter  ?  Can  we 
pick  it  all  out  ?  Oh,  no  ;  we  must  burn  it  out.  Let  us  now 
put  it  on  this  flat  fire-shovel  and  put  it  into  the  stove  and 
leave  it  there.  We  must  stir  it  once  in  a  while,  but  be  care- 
ful not  to  push  any  off  the  shovel.  What  part  burns  ?  Yes, 
it  is  the  vegetable  matter  which  burns.  Will  the  sand  or 
clay  part  burn  ?  Oh,  no  ;  they  cannot  burn.  How  does  it 
burn  ?  It  does  not  burn  with  a  flame.  No  ;  it  smokes  and 
smoulders  away.  The  vegetable  matter  is  going  up  the 
chimney  now.  Can  you  see  it  ?  It  is  smoke.  When  it 


Walks  with  the  Children.  185 

stops  smoking,  we  will  look  at  it  again.  Now  we  will  weigh 
it  again.  Has  it  lost  much  ?  How  much  did  it  lose  by 
burning  ? 

Now  let  us  see  what  we  have  learned  from  these  experi- 
ments on  the  soil.  We  had  i  Ib.  or  16  oz.  of  soil. 

1 6     oz.  fresh  top-soil. 
2\  oz.  lost  by  drying  in  air 

13^  oz. 
3^  oz  lost  in  oven. 

10 
7     oz.  lost  in  fire. 

3     oz.  ash  remaining. 

The  above  affords  a  great  number  of  problems  for  all 
grades.  The  percentages  lost  each  time  give  practical  work 
for  higher  classes,  while  all  the  fundamental  rules  may  be 
applied  to  the  heart's  content.  Now  ask  each  pupil  to  an- 
alyze the  soil  in  his  own  father's  farm  in  this  way  and  bring 
results  to  school.  Ask  the  children  to  find  whose  farm  is 
richest  in  vegetable  matter.  Thus  a  child's  instincts  for 
playing  in  the  dirt  can  be  turned  to  practical  account. 

EXCURSIONS. 

The  taking  of  older  pupils  to  visit  places  of  interest  in 
one's  town  or  neighborhood  can  hardly  be  overestimated  in 
its  value  to  the  pupils.  Quarries,  clay-pits  and  gravel-pits, 
mines,  factories,  and  places  of  historic  interest  should  be 
visited  by  students  under  the  direction  of  their  teachers. 

The  Chatham  pupils  visited  paper-mills,  gas-factories, 
tanneries,  electric-light  power-houses,  waterworks,  pumping- 
stations,  and  numerous  places  of  interest  in  and  near  Chat- 
ham. In  addition  to  this  excursions  were  made  to  New 
York  and  Brooklyn,  where  points  of  interest  from  Castle 
Garden  to  the  Grant  Monument  were  seen  and  talked  about, 


i86  Lessons  in  Mure  Study* 


COLLECTIONS  DURING  VACATION. 

WHAT   TO   COLLECT  FOR   NATURE   STUDY   AND  HOW   TO 
COLLECT  IT. 

The  progressive  country  teacher  who  is  face  to  face  with 
nature  all  the  time  hardly  needs  to  ask,  "  What  shall  I  collect 
during  the  summer  vacation  to  interest  my  pupils  next  year  ? " 
She  has  but  to  direct  the  observing  powers  of  her  pupils  into 
the  ever-widening  channels  of  nature  study,  and  she  reaps 
a  harvest  of  curiosities  for  her  cabinet  of  which  many  a 
museum  might  be  proud. 

The  city  teacher,  penned  up  between  brick  walls,  with  a 
brewery  on  her  right  and  a  livery-stable  on  her  left,  high 
buildings  in  the  rear  and  a  noisy  street  in  front,  must  make 
collections  in  the  far-away  country,  at  the  seaside,  among 
the  mountains,  or  anywhere  out  of  the  hurly-burly  of  her 
daily  life. 

Do  I  hear  some  tired  teacher  exclaim,  "  Vacation  collec- 
tions. Out  upon  them  !  Let  us  rest !  "  and  the  like  ?  True, 
you  are  not  paid  to  collect  objects  in  the  summer.  True, 
your  labors  are  at  an  end  when  your  reports  for  June  are  in. 
But  if  you  can  rest  your  tired  body,  if  you  can  gain  a  fund 
of  fresh  zeal  and  energy,  if  you  can  do  something  that  will 
make  your  next  year's  work  easier,  more  interesting,  and 
profitable  by  collecting  materials  for  nature  study,  aren't  you 
willing  to  do  it  ? 

Let  us,  then,  suppose  that  you  are  going  out  of  town  for 
part  of  the  summer  vacation  ;  no  matter  where.  Nature  is 
lavish  in  her  distribution  of  things  for  study.  No  matter 


Collections  during  Vacation* 


187 


where  you  go,  as  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes  has  said,  na- 
ture never  loses  a  place  to  hide  things,  even  to  the  joint  of 
a  tavern  bedstead. 

I.  Insects. 

Such  varied  and  beautiful  things  cannot  fail  to  be  most 
interesting  objects  of  study. 

(a)  How  to  Catch — The  easiest  method  of  catching  is  to 
fix  a  net  out  of  thin  cloth,  like  tarletan  or  mosquito-net. 
Sew  in  form  of  a  conical  bag,  and  hem.  Bend  a  piece  of 


Fro.  49. 


common  stovepipe  wire  and  run  into  the  hem.  Fasten  the 
ends  of  the  wire  together  by  twisting,  and  insert  into  the  end 
a  stick  about  three  feet  long.  With  a  little  practice  one  can 
become  very  expert  in  capturing  insects  on  the  wing  with 
this  simple  net  (Fig.  490). 

(b)  How  to  Kill. — The  cruel  method  of  transfixing  with 
a  pin  cannot  be  too  strongly  condemned.  There  are  two 
ways  which  are  easy  and  quick,  and  not  in  the  least  cruel. 
Put  a  drop  of  benzine  or  naphtha  on  the  insect  and  he  is 
killed  instantly.  The  benzine  does  not  injure  the  most  deli- 


1 88  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

+• 

cate  structure.  It  speedily  evaporates,  leaving  every  por- 
tion as  perfect  as  in  the  living  creature.  Another  method 
is  to  kill  by  means  of  the  fumes  of  potassium  cyanide. 

A  collecting-bottle  will  be  needed,  and,  if  you  do  not 
care  to  make  it  yourself,  go  to  a  druggist  and  procure  a 
wide-mouth,  large  bottle,  six  or  eight  inches  high,  with  cork 
to  fit  it  tightly  (a  pint  glass  jar  will  do).  Have  him  put 
some  small  fragments  of  potassium  cyanide  in  the  bottle  ; 
then  mix  a  small  quantity  of  plaster  of  Paris  and  water. 
Pour  in  enough  to  just  cover  the  piece  of  potassium  cya- 
nide and  let  it  stand  a  few  moments  until  the  plaster  of 
Paris  has  had  time  to  set.  (The  plaster  being  porous,  the 
fumes  of  the  poisonous  KCN  pass  out  into  the  bottle,  and 
the  plaster  serves  to  keep  the  KCN  down  so  that  the  frag- 
ments cannot  shake  around  and  mutilate  the  insects  in  the 
bottle.) 

To  use  it,  having  caught  the  insect,  drop  him  into  the 
bottle  and  cork  tightly.  The  fumes  will  soon  kill  him. 
Any  teacher  can  make  such  a  bottle  herself  at  a  cost  of 
three  cents  (Fig.  49^). 

(c)  How  to  Mount. — Procure  a  tight  wooden  box  about 
10  X  12  X  3  inches,  having  a  sliding  wooden  cover.  Remove 
the  cover  and  slide  in  a  piece  of  glass.  If  the  box  is  pine, 
it  needs  no  further  fixing,  but  if  of  some  harder  wood  it  is 
well  to  get  two  or  three  dozen  corks  for  small  vials.  Glue 
these  corks  at  regular  intervals  to  the  bottom  of  the  box. 
It  is  well  in  either  case  to  line  the  box  with  plain  white  pa- 
per to  prevent  the  entrance  of  dust,  lice,  etc.,  and  to  give 
the  box  a  neater  appearance.  If  a  little  corrosive  sublimate 
or  other  poison  be  used  in  the  paste,  it  greatly  aids  in  keep- 
ing out  all  such  intruders.  Having  lined  the  box,  put  the 
corks  in  place,  and  having  fitted  the  sliding  glass  covers, 
your  cabinet  is  ready.  Take  each  insect  when  dead  and 
thrust  a  sharp  pin  through  the  thorax  and  mount  on  one  of 
the  corks. 

After  one  or  two  summers  of  collecting  it  is  well  to  re- 
arrange your  insects,  putting  them  in  classes  according  to 


Collections  during  Vacation.  189 

their  families,  having  a  separate  box  for  each  order  of  in- 
sects, i.e.,  one  for  butterflies,  one  for  beetles,  one  for  flies, 
one  for  crickets,  etc. 

(d)  How  to  Preserve. — All  entomologists  complain  of 
the  ravages  of  dust,  lice,  etc.  These  pests  will  get  into  the 
tightest  cabinet  and  eat  away  the  most  beautiful  portions  ; 
and  then  "  chankings  "  may  always  be  seen  in  the  bottom 
of  every  box  of  insects.  This  can  be  very  largely  prevented, 
at  least  greatly  checked,  by  wetting  the  insects  once  in  a 
while  with  benzine  or  gasoline.  This  may  be  done  with- 
out opening  the  case.  Take  a  large  dripping-pan  and  pour 
in  about  one  inch  deep  of  gasoline.  Set  your  "  bug-box  " 
into  it  until  the  insects  inside  are  wet.  Each  box  may  be 
set  in,  and  so  all  insect  pests  are  killed.  Such  treatment  is 
not  needed  oftener  than  once  or  twice  a  year. 

II.  Mollusks. 

One  need  not  be  a  conchologist  to  enjoy  the  beauty  of 
shells.  Their  colors,  their  exquisite  shapes,  their  infinite 
variety,  all  furnish  material  of  keenest  interest  to  teacher 
and  pupil. 

If  you  should  spend  your  summer  at  the  seaside,  you  will 
have  the  best  opportunity  for  such  collections  ;  but  if  among 
the  mountains  or  in  the  country  near  a  stream  or  inland 
lake,  you  also  have  a  chance  to  collect  shells.  Land-shells 
are  also  interesting.  Scarcely  a  moist  stone  but  has  its  mo) 
lusca  living  in  their  delicate  shells  beneath  it  ;  hardly  a 
plant  in  the  deep  woods  but  will  be  found  on  examination 
to  have  them  somewhere  upon  it.  In  collecting  the  teacher 
should  be  supplied  with  a  large  number  of  phials  for  small 
shells.  Into  a  phial  put  all  of  one  kind  and  cork.  Label 
each  phial  with  the  locality  where  found.  If  there  are  liv- 
ing mollusks  in  the  shells,  a  few  drops  of  alcohol  in  the  phial 
will  preserve.  A  convenient  mode  of  arrangement  is  to  put 
small  shells  in  such  phials,  while  larger  shells  may  be  kept 
in  small  boxes.  A  friend  of  mine  purchased  one  of  Clark's 
frhread-cases  of  drawers,  made  compartments  m  each  drawer, 


190  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

and  placed  the  different  varieties  on  mats  of  cotton  in  each 
compartment.  Some  such  method  is  indispensable  to  one 
who  has  a  large  collection. 

III.   Other  Animals. 

Summer  is  the  time  for  creeping  things.  Alcoholic  prep- 
arations are  easily  put  up.  One  who  attempts  such  collec- 
tions will  be  able  to  interest  the  children  where  he  may  be, 
and  thus  his  collection  will  immeasurably  grow  with  but  the 
slightest  effort  on  his  part.  To  illustrate  :  A  collection  of 
over  500  insects,  240  skulls,  and  17  snakes,  worms,  etc.,  was 
made  with  scarcely  an  effort  on  my  part.  As  soon  as  the 
children  learned  my  fondness  for  such  things  everything 
curious  drifted  toward  me.  I  never  feel  like  encouraging 
the  collection  of  eggs. 

IV.  Minerals. 

Minerals  may  be  gathered  if  one  is  among  the  mountains, 
but  not  there  alone,  for  the  gravel  and  bowlders  round 
about  any  country  place  are  filled  with  most  interesting  and 
beautiful  things. 

V.   General  Collections. 

If  the  teacher  spends  her  summer  in  the  city,  she  has 
many  advantages  for  securing  specimens  for  her  classes. 
Every  manufactory  should  be  laid  under  contribution  for 
samples  to  illustrate  processes.  Thus,  samples  of  rubber  in 
all  stages  of  manufacture,  leather,  cloths,  paper,  china,  glass, 
gas,  and  metals  in  various  stages  of  reduction  serve  as  hints 
of  what  may  be  collected  in  many  cities. 

VI.  Historical  Collections. 

Things  from  places  made  famous  in  history,  may  serve  a 
double  purpose  if  they  are  also  of  scientific  value.  Nature 
may  be  made  the  most  entertaining  feature  of  school-work, 
and  yet  not  interfere  with  the  three  R's.  It  may  be  made  a 
basis  on  which  all  the  other  work  of  the  school  rests.  It  is 
sometimes  more  interesting  and  profitable  to  the  teacher  tQ 


Collections  during  Vacation.  191 

collect  in  some  one  line  each  summer.     I  have  sometimes 
tried  this.     One  summer  it  was  grasses  ;   another  sedges ;  • 
two  years  ago  it  was  manufactures  in  various  stages  ;   last 
year  fresh-water  shells.     The   coming   summer  it  will  be 
mosses. 

Of  course,  any  and  all  things  accessible  should  be  taken, 
but  it  is  often  well  to  have  some  particular  hobby  to  ride 
each  summer. 

Under  such  a  course  as  the  above  the  teacher  will  find 
herself  broadening  ;  she  will  see  beauties  where  she  never 
saw  them  before  ;  her  ideas  of  nature  and  nature's  marvel- 
lous plan  will  be  more  accurate.  And  filled  with  the  new 
impulse  that  comes  of  having  drawn  inspiration  from  the 
fountain-head,  she  will  enter  upon  her  fall  term  full  of  zeal, 
and  new  knowledge  and  power.  Let  the  champion  of  the 
three  R's  try  it  and  see. 

COLLECTIONS  TO  ILLUSTRATE  THE  OCCUPATIONS  OF  MEN 
EVERYWHERE. 

Glass  Manufacture. — Varieties  of  sand  and  chemicals 
used.  Plate-,  crown-,  flint-,  bottle-,  stained,  spun-,  cathe- 
dral glass. 

Sugar. — "  Nigger-toe,"  New  Orleans,  black  strap,  syrup, 
white  drip.  Grades  of  sugar:  coffee  A,  etc.,  loaf,  cube, 
granulated,  pulverized,  rock  candy,  maple,  sugar,  glucose. 

Lead. — Sheet,  foil,  pipe,  ore,  bullets,  shot,  litharge, 
minium,  sugar  of  lead,  white  lead,  etc.,  chrome  yellow, 
orange,  etc. 

Tanning  and  Leather. — Upholsterer's  sole,  kip,  calfskin, 
kid,  chamois,  morocco,  russia,  bookbinder's,  sheep,  vellum, 
parchment,  patent,  dongola,  alligator,  tug,  trunk,  harness, 
kangaroo,  rawhide,  tan-bark  before  and  after  use,  buckskin. 

China  Manufacture. 

Rubber  Manufacture. 

Lithographing. 

Milling. — Flour,  wheat,  bolting-silk,  etc. 

Smelting. — Iron,  pig,  wrought,  steel,  etc.,  slag,  etc, 


192  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

Lumbering. — White  oak,  red  oak,  etc.;  pine:  white,  yellow, 
red,  Norway,  etc.;  maple:  curly,  white,  bird's-eye,  etc.;  hem- 
lock, spruce;  cedar:  red,  white,  etc.;  mahogany,  ebony,  san- 
dal, rosewood,  etc.,  etc.,  etc.,  birch,  beech,  hickory,  etc., 
walnut,  cottonwood,  whitewood,  cypress. 

Textiles. — Flax:  tow,  linen,  etc.,  thread;  hemp:  rope,  cord, 
canvas;  manilla:  rope,  burlap;  cotton:  muslin,  lawn,  ging- 
ham, calico,  etc.,  thread,  twine,  cord,  rope;  woollen:  wool, 
yarn,  crewel,  flannel,  rep,  etc.;  silk:  cocoon,  raw,  woven, 
bengaline,  moire,  etc. 

Paper. — Process,  kinds,  etc.,  pasteboard,  straw-board,  etc. 

Seeds  arranged  in  bottles  or  small  boxes. 

Nuts. — Walnut,  butternut,  beech,  hickory,  pig,  chestnut, 
horse-chestnut,  hazel,  Brazil,  pecan,  filbert,  almond,  English 
walnut,  French  chestnut,  cocoanut,  acorns. 

Blacksmithing. — Iron,  oxide,  coal,  etc. 

Carbon. — Anthracite,  cannel,  bituminous,  coal  tar,  pitch, 
coke,  graphite,  gas  carbon,  charcoal,  asphalt,  lampblack, 
bone-black,  ivory-black,  soot,  peat,  muck,  electric  light 
pencils,  diamonds. 

Metals. — Iron,  tin,  zinc,  copper,  silver,  etc. 

Alloys. — Brass,  bronze,  type-metal,  pewter,  etc. 


Devices  and  Helps  in  Nature  Study.  193 


DEVICES  AND  HELPS  IN  NATURE  STUDY. 
BOOKS  OF  REFERENCE. 

The  Weather-chart. 

The  weather-chart  is  a  very  useful  device  now  to  be  found 
in  many  schools.  It  consists  of  a  large  card,  in  the  centre 
of  which  is  a  square  divided  into  49  smaller  squares,  7  on 
each  side,  i.e.,  7X7.  These  smaller  squares  are  two  inches 
each  way. 

Down  the  first  column  of  squares  the  days  of  the  week 
are  written.  Then  for  each  day  of  the  month  a  circle  of 
colored  paper  is  pasted  in  the  square  representing  that  day. 
In  the  Chatham  school  the  pupils  selected  red  for  clear  and 
warm,  blue  for  clear  and  cold,  light  gray  for  cloudy,  and 
dark  gray  for  stormy. 

Observations  are  ma<de  at  12  M.,  and  the  direction  of  the 
wind  each  day  is  indicated  by  an  arrow  cut  out  of  white 
paper  and  mounted  across  the  colored  circle.  Thus  a  blue 
circle  having  an  arrow  pointing  upward  indicates  that  at 
.noon  of  that  day  the  wind  was  in  the  south  and  the  day 
was  cold  and  clear.  It  is  necessary  to  have  42  squares  in 
which  to  represent  the  days  of  the  month,  since  the  month 
begins  on  different  days  of  the  week.  Pupils  become  at 
once  very  much  interested  in  these  observations.  The  record 
is  kept,  and  at  the  close  of  each  month  the  card  is  put  up 
above  the  blackboard  and  a  new  card  is  put  up  for  the  new 
month.  The  names  of  days  and  an  appropriate  heading  are 
printed  by  some  pupil  especially  skilled  in  that  line  of  work, 
while  the  four  colors  are  placed  just  below  the  square  to 
explain  their  use  above. 


194  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

It  is  well  to  give  some  questions  at  the  end  of  each  month, 
to  be  answered  from  the  chart.  Comparisons  between  two 
consecutive  months  are  helpful,  and  it  often  is  very  inter- 
esting to  compare  a  month  of  one  year  with  the  same  month 
of  the  next. 

LESSON  ON  THE  WEATHER-CHART. 

The  following  questions  on  the  chart  for  December,  1894, 
were  given  as  a  language  lesson  : 

1.  On  what  week-day  did  December  begin? 

2.  How  many  days  in  the  month  ? 

3.  How  many  days  were  pleasant  and  warm  (above  32°)  ? 

4.  How  many  pleasant,  but  cold  (below  32°)  ? 

5.  How  many  cloudy  days  ? 

6.  How  many  stormy  ones  ? 

7.  On  the  average,  was  December  cold  or  warm  ? 

8.  Cloudy  or  clear  ? 

9.  Stormy  or  not  ? 

10.  How  many  days  had  north  winds  ? 

11.  South? 

12.  East? 

13.  West? 

14.  Northeast  ?  etc. 

15.  What  days  had  no  wind  ? 

1 6.  Judging  from  the  December  chart,  does  there  seem 
to  be  any  truth  in  the  saying  that  the  weather  of  the  first 
three  days  forecasts  the  entire  month  ? 

17.  How  did  the  wind  blow  on  the  first  Sunday  ? 

18.  Were  the  other  Sundays  like  it  as  regards  weather? 

19.  Does  there  seem  to  be  truth  in  the  statement  that  all  the 
Sundays  of  a  month  are  like  the  first  Sunday  of  that  month  ? 

20.  Can  you  discover  any  relation  between  the  condition 
of  the  weather  and  the  direction  of  the  wind  ? 

21.  In  general,  a  south  wind  accompanies  what  kind  of 
weather  ? 

22.  What  was  the  prevailing  wind  for  the  month  ? 

23.  On  the  average,  was  the  month  pleasant  or  unpleasant? 

24.  Compare  December  with  November  and  January. 


Devices  and  Helps  in  Nature  Study. 
The  "  Weather-pole." 


195 


Do  you  know  what  a  *'  weather-pole  "  is  ?  No  ?  Well, 
I  think  every  school  ought  to  have  one.  No,  it  is  not  a 
flagpole.  Can  you  not  guess  ?  Does  the  name  give  you  no 
hint  ?  Oh,  yes  ;  it  is  because  the  pole  tells  something  about 
the  weather.  How  ?  We  shall  see  how  ;  but  first  we  must 
have  a  vane  to  put  on  the  pole.  Can  one  of  you  boys  make 
us  a  weather-vane  ?  How  long  is  this  pole  ?  Yes,  about  eight 
feet.  At  recess  we  will  stand  it  in  the  yard.  Let  us  nail  it 
firmly  to  the  south  fence.  We  will  go  out  at  noon  and  see 
where  its  shadow  will  be.  Why  do  we  put  the  weather-vane 
on  the  pole  ?  Yes,  we  put  it  there  so  that  we  may  know  how 
the  wind  is  blowing  at  any  time.  What  is  the  reason  that 
we  must  place  the  pole  at  some  distance  from  the  house  ? 
Because  when  the  wind  sweeps  around  the  corners  of  the 
house  its  direction  is  often  changed.  We  want  to  know 
what  direction  the  wind  blows  when  not  turned  out  of  its 
course  by  any  building  or  other  object. 

Now  take  a  sheet  of  legal  cap  and  fold  it  twice  so  that 
you  will  have  four  leaves.  You  may  use  a  small  memoran- 
dum or  pad  instead.  If  you  use  paper,  fold  several  sheets 
as  directed  and  make  them  into  a  book.  Rule  the  pages  as 
I  do  now. 

WEATHER   RECORD   FOR   SEPTEMBER. 


Date. 

Temp. 

Wind. 

Amount. 

Clouds. 

Shadow. 

Now  we  are  ready  to  use  our  weather-pole.  Let  us  go 
out  at  noon  and  see  it.  Let  us  take  a  thermometer  with  us 
and  hang  it  on  the  shady  side  of  the  pole.  First  let  us  ob- 
serve the  long  shadow  which  the  pole  casts  on  the  ground. 
Henry  may  drive  this  stake  into  the  ground  just  where  the 


196 


Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 


shadow  ends.  We  will  leave  it  there  for  a  long  time.  It 
will  tell  us  something  after  a  while.  Now  let  us  observe  the 
vane.  In  what  direction  is  the  wind  blowing  ?  From  what 
direction  is  it  coming  ?  How  do  we  name  winds  ?  Yes, 
they  are  named  from  the  direction  in  which  they  blow. 
What  shall  we  name  this  wind  ?  Yes,  it  is  a  northeast  wind. 
Does  it  blow  light  or  heavy  ?  Notice  the  clouds,  their  color 
and  kind.  Are  there  many  clouds  ?  Now  observe  the  ther- 
mometer. What  does  it  tell  us  ? 

We  will  now  fill  up  a  line  in  our  little  book,  putting. the 
date  in  column  i,  then  temperature,  etc.  Under  "  Wind  " 
put  such  words  as  N.,  N.E.,  E.,  S.E.,  S.,  S.W.,  and  W.; 
under  "Amount,"  light,  heavy,  moderate,  strong,  calm, 
clear,  fair,  cloudy,  very  cloudy  ;  and  under  "  Shadow  "  put 
its  length  in  feet  and  inches.  Thus  the  record  taken  at 
Chatham  public  school  for  the  school-days  of  the  month  of 
December,  1894,  was : 

WEATHER   RECORD   FOR   DECEMBER,    1894. 


Date. 

Temp. 

Wind. 

Amount. 

Clouds. 

Shadow. 

3 
4 
5 
6 

7 

28+ 
31 
33 
29 

21 

N.E. 
E. 

S.E. 
N.E. 

N.E. 

strong 

moderate 
i« 

cloudy 
clear 

4  ft.  7  in. 
4       7 
4       6f 
4       6 
4       5f 

10 

ii 

12 
13 
14 

12 
H  + 

17 
16 

20 

N. 
N. 
N.W. 
N.W. 
N.W. 

moderate 

(i 

« 
<« 

clear 
cloudy 
very  cloudy 

fair 

4  ft.  5f  in. 
4       4* 
4       4 
4       31 
4       3i 

17 

18 

*9 
.   20 

21 

21 

25 

35 
40 

38 

E. 
S.E. 
S.E. 
S.E. 
S.E. 

calm 
moderate 

strong 
« 

cloudy 

fair 
K 

clear 
« 

4  ft.  3  in. 

1    & 

4       2 
4       2 

24 

25 
26 

27 

28 

30 
18 
10 
16 
18 

S.E. 
N.E. 

N. 
N. 
N 

moderate 
« 

calm 
moderate 

cloudy 

clear 
« 

4  ft.  2  in. 
4       2 
4       3 
4       3* 

4       3* 

Devices  and  Helps  in  Nature  Study.  197 

To  the  Teacher. — Such  observations  may  be  begun  in 
September  and  continue  through  the  year.  I  prefer  Sep- 
tember 2oth  as  the  best  time  for  beginning  these  observa- 
tions, for  it  is  autumnal  equinox  and  the  shadow  begins- to 
lengthen  then  toward  winter. 

A  few  hints  to  the  children  to  watch  the  shadow  and 
measure  it  every  noon  will  soon  show  them  that  the  great 
change  from  summer  to  winter  is  recording  itself  on  the 
ground.  It  is  not  advisable  to  measure  the  shadow  every  day. 
Once  or  twice  a  week  .is  sufficient,  and  the  lengthening  of 
the  shadow  will  show  itself  more  than  if  measurements  are 
taken  daily. 

At  the  end  of  the  month  such  questions  as  these  may  be 
asked  :  What  has  been  the  hottest  day  this  month  ?  What 
was  the  temperature  that  day  ?  In  what  direction  have  the 
prevailing  winds  been  blowing  ?  How  was  the  wind  blow- 
ing the  hottest  day  ?  The  coldest  day  ?  How  has  the 
shadow  changed  during  the  month  ? 

If  possible,  keep  record  of  temperature  with  Centigrade 
thermometer,  and  compare  the  readings  C.  and  F.  In  the 
above  table  the  temperature  is  taken  in  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

The  shadow  may  also  be  measured  in  linear  and  in  metric 
units  so  as  to  give  practice  in  both  tables.  It  is  also  a  good 
plan  to  have  a  large  card  of  Bristol-board  ruled  and  the 
weather  record  kept  on  it  and  hung  up  in  the  school-house 
for  reference. 

The  following  facts  will  usually  be  brought  out :  i.  A 
fall  of  temperature  accompanies  a  change  of  wind  toward 
the  north.  2.  The  thermometer  shows  less  variation  of 
temperature  on  cloudy  calm  days  than  on  clear  gusty  ones, 
etc. 

An  additional  column  may  be  added  .headed  "  Weather," 
and  under  this  head  may  be  placed  such  facts  as  rain,  snow, 
etc. 

Definition  Cards. 

Some  years  ago  the  author  made  a  collection  of  botanical 
specimens  to  illustrate  every  definition  in  Gray's  Botany. 


198  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

Nearly  every  form  of  root,  stem,  leaf,  inflorescence,  etc., 
was  collected  and  mounted  on  cards  14X16  inches  and 
filed  away  in  envelopes  for  future  use. 

These  "  definition-cards  "  proved  so  useful  in  nature  les- 
sons that  he  has  never  failed  to  recommend  them  as  a  helpful 
device. 

Prof.  Davey  of  East  Orange  exhibited  some  "  definition- 
cards  "  at  Dover,  N.  J.,  recently.  These  were  made  circular 
in  form,  and  upon  one  of  these  circles  of  Bristol-board  were 
mounted  leaf-margins  ;  upon  another  apexes  and  bases. 
The  idea  of  circular  cards  originated  with  one  of  the  East 
Orange  teachers.  The  effect  is  very  artistic  and  pleasing, 
and  such  things  may  serve  somewhat  to  decorate  the  often 
bare  walls  of  a  school-room. 

Wherever  possible,  the  child  should  see  the  things  them- 
selves. In  Morristown,  N.  J.,  several  school-rooms  have 
large  cards  covered  with  mounted  vegetable  forms.  The 
educational  value  of  this  method  cannot  be  denied  even  in 
schools  of  highest  grade. 

Dr.  Rusby,  of  the  New  York  College  of  Pharmacy,  showed 
the  writer  definition-cards  which  are  constantly  in  use  in 
that  great  institution. 

Dr.  Rusby  has  thousands  of  specimens  illustrating  every 
vegetable  form.  These  are  classified  in  a  large  room,  and 
a  very  large  part  of  the  work  in  botany  is  done  upon  such 
specimens  as  these.  If  schools  of  highest  rank  require  such 
aids  as  these,  how  much  more  are  such  things  needed  in 
schools  of  the  humbler  sort. 

Moisture  of  the  Air. 

A  very  good  device  for  detecting  the  relative  amount  of 
moisture  in  the  air  may  be  made  by  selecting  a  stick  of 
straight  grain,  about  three  or  four  feet  long.  This  stick 
should  be  whittled  off  to  a  long  tapering  point  at  one  end 
somewhat  like  a  blackboard  pointer,  while  the  other  end 
should  be  left  large  and  round.  A  large  newspaper,  thor- 
oughly dried,  should  be  opened  out  flat  and  then  lifted  up 


Devices  and  Helps  in  Nature  Study.  199 

by  its  centre  so  that  the  sides  and  ends  hang  downward. 
It  may  be  crumpled  into  smaller  space,  but  it  must  be  loose, 
so  that  the  air  may  reach  all  parts  of  it. 

The  paper  should  then  be  suspended  by  a  thread  to  the 
pointed  end  of  the  stick.  Then  the  device  should  be  care- 
fully balanced.  The  heavy  end  of  the  stick  will  bring  the 
centre  of  gravity  well  toward  that  end.  When  the  appara- 
tus has  been  properly  balanced,  it  should  be  suspended  so 
as  to  hang  in  a  horizontal  position.  After  hanging  a  short 
time  the  balance  will  be  destroyed.  The  moisture  of  the 
air  penetrates  the  paper,  making  it  heavier.  It  therefore 
sinks,  and,  since  the  stick  is  long,  the  depression  is  readily 
seen.  Every  hydrographic  change  in  the  atmosphere  may  be 
thus  observed  and  recorded.  A  very  sensitive  piece  of  appa- 
ratus can  be  used  to  measure  the  moisture  in  the  air  of  out- 
doors as  compared  with  that  inside  of  the  house.  When  taken 
into  the  cellar,  the  paper  end  will  soon  be  depressed.  Near 
a  stove  it  will  again  rise.  This  simple  device  will  often 
indicate  the  coming  of  rain  also  for  the  same  reason.  An 
ingenious  pupil  arranged  a  sort  of  protractor  at  the  point  of 
suspension  so  that  the  number  of  degrees  of  depression 
could  be  determined.  Such  a  device  is  a  sort  of  hygrometer. 
A  better  one  consists  of  balancing  a  leaden  weight  at  one 
end  and  a  large  sponge  at  the  other.  The  sponge  should  be 
first  wet  in  strong  brine  and  then  dried.  The  salt  within 
the  sponge  makes  it  more  sensitive  to  the  presence  of 
atmospheric  moisture. 

The  above  device  together  with  the  thermgmeter, 
weather-vane,  and  weather-pole  are  very  helpful  in  making 
observations  on  the  weather. 

The  following  list  of  books  will  be  helpful  to  teachers, 
but  let  it  not  be  forgotton  that  the  greatest  book  on  nature 
study  is  Nature  herself. 


2oo  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

A  LIST  OF  BOOKS  WHICH  HAVE  BEEN 
HELPFUL  IN  NATURE  STUDY. 

Colton's  Zoology. 

Tenney's  Zoology. 

Guides  to  Science  Teaching. 

Seaside  and  Wayside. 

Morser  First  Lessons  in  Zoology. 

Gray's  Botanies. 

Youman's  Botanies. 

Apgar's  Trees. 

Animal  Life,  Land  and  Sea. 

Orton's  Zoology. 

Fairy  Land  of  Science. 

Fairy  Land  of  Flowers. 

Life  and  her  Children. 

Birds  and  Bees. 

Thoreau's  Walden. 

Kingsley's  Madam  How  and  Lady  Why. 

Kingsley's  Town  Geology. 

Jackman's  Nature  Study. 

Packard's  Zoology. 

Packard's  Entomology  for  Beginners. 

Parables  from  Nature. 

Newell's  Botany. 

The  Coming  School  (E.  E.  Kenyon). 

Adventures  of  a  Young  Naturalist. 

In  Nesting  Time. 

Abbott's  Science  for  the  Young. 

Prang's  Natural  Science  Series. 

Northrop's  Earth,  Sea,  and  Sky. 

Meyer's  Real  Fairy  Tales. 

Treat's  My  Garden  Pets. 

Hooker's  Child's  Book  of  Nature. 

Wollf's  Wild  Animals. 

Barnard's  Talks  about  Useful  Plants. 

Barnard's  Talks  about  the  Soil. 


Boohs  of  Reference.  201 

Barnard's  Talks  about  the  Weather. 

Mrs.  Kelley's  Leaves  from  Nature's  Story-book,  4  vols. 

Rick's  Natural  History. 

Boys'  and  Girls'  Biology. 

Bidgood's  Biology. 

Paul  Bert's  First  Steps  in  Scientific  Knowledge. 

Frye's  Brooks  and  Brook  Basins. 

Frye's  Child  and  Nature. 

How  to  Know  the  Wild  Flowers. 

Newhall's  Trees  of  the  Northeastern  United  States. 

J.  G.  Wood's  Half  Hours  with  a  Naturalist. 

Calkins'  Primary  Object  Lessons. 

Calkins'  Manual  of  Object  Teaching. 

Sarah  Arnold's  Way-marks  for  Teachers. 

Ginn  &  Co.'s  Nature  Readers. 

Johonnot's  Series  of  Readers. 

Tenants  of  an  Old  Farm. 

First  Steps  in  Natural  Science. 

Any  of  the  above  and  all  books  on  Nature  and  Nature 
Study  can  be  obtained  of  E.  L.  Kellogg  &  Co.,  61  East  Qth 
St.,  New  York. 


The  Best  Educational  Periodicals. 


THE  SCHOOL  JOURNAL 

is  published  weekly  at  $2.50  a  year  and  is  in  its  25th  year.  It  is  the 
oldest,  best  known  and  widest  circulated  educational  weekly  in  the 
U.  S.  THE  JOURNAL  is  filled  with  ideas  that  will  surely  advance  the 
teachers'  conception  of  education.  The  best  brain  work  on  the  work 
of  professional  teaching  is  found  in  it — not  theoretical  essays,  nor 
pieces  scissored  out  of  other  journals.  The  Monthly  School  Board 
issue  is  a  symposium  of  most  interesting  material  relating  to  new 
buildings,  heating,  and  ventilation,  school  law,  etc.,  etc, 

THE  PRIMARY  SCHOOL 

is  published  monthly  from  September  to  June  at  $1.00  a  year.  It  is 
the  ideal  paper  for  primary  teachers,  being  devoted  almost  exclusively 
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tures this  year  of  great  value. 

THE  TEACHERS-   INSTITUTE 

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covered  in  each  issue.  The  large  chart  supplements  with  each  issue 
are  very  popular. 

EDUCATIONAL  FOUNDATIONS. 

This  is  not  a  paper,  but  a  series  of  small  monthly  volumes,  $1.00  a 
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OUR  TIMES 

gives  a  resume  of  the  imoortant  news  of  the  month — not  the  murders, 
the  scandals,  etc.,  but  the  news  that  bears  upon  the  progress  of  the 
world  and  specially  wriitea  for  the  school  room.  It  is  the  brightest 
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can  be  afforded  by  every  pupil.  30  cents  a  year.  Club  rates,  25  cents. 

*#*  Select  the  paper  suited  to  your  needs  and  send  for  a  free 
sample.    Samples  of  all  the  papers  (40  cents  wot  th)  for  20  cents. 

E.L.  KELLOGG  &  CO.,  New  York  and  Chicago. 


Kellogg s  Series  of  Special  Day  Books.     Latest  and  Best  / 


How  to  Celebrate  Thanksgiving  and 
Christmas  in  the  Schoolroom. 

FOR  THE  PRIMARY,  GRAMMAR,  AND  HIGH  SCHOOL. 

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Complete  Programs  for  celebrating  Thanksgiving,  Christmas,  and  Autumn 
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Two  Important  Features  of  the  book  are  the  carefully  prepared  complete 
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RECITATIONS  FOB  CHRISTMAS. 

Christmas  Eve,  A  Surprise  for  Santa  Claus, 


Thii 


Christinas  Bel 

The  Very  Best  Thing, 

The  Christmas  Tree, 

The  Merry  Christmas  Time, 

The  Stocking's  Christmas, 

An  Autumn  Poet  (Bryant), 

In  the  Autumn, 

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Autumn  Thougnts, 

The  Return  of  Thanksgiving, 

Thanksgiving    Exercise    for    Little 


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The  Day  of  Days, 
Kris  Kringle, 
The  Bells, 
Christmas  Echoes, 


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anksgi 
Child 


ren, 


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Thanksgiving  in  theF 

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Tableau), 

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Reward  of  Labor,  •        |     A  Song  of  Gladness, 

Thanksgiving  Song,  What  Little  Folks  Can  Do. 

Fill  the  Baskets,  '     Motion  Song  for  Thanksgiving. 

New  Year  and  Midwinter  Exercises 

Recitations,  Quotations,  Authors'  Birthdays,  and  Special 

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Do  you  want  help  in  preparing  a  program  for  Charles  Dickens'  birthday, 
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him.  It  contains  also  a  Robert  Burns'  Exercise  for  January  25,  which  will  be 
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In  the  country  schools  "  A  Winter  Evening  Entertainment,"  contained  in 
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Original  recitations  and  exercises  appropriate  for  the  winter  months  are  not 
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creat  day.  The  observance  of  Washington's  Birthday  is  Increasing.  It  has  re- 
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I  Would  Tell. 

Flag  of  the  Rainbow, 

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Three  Flag  Drills 

Fifty  Patriotic  Quotations. 


Special  Exercises 

Tableaux  and  Recitations, 

Our  National  Songs, 

Historic  Exercise, 

Honoring  the  Flag, 

Washington  is  Our  Model, 

Pictures  from  the  Life  of  Washington, 

Celebrating  Washington's  Birthday. 

and  SOUKS 

jruary, 


PARKER'S 

Talks  on 
Pedagogics. 


BY 


Col.  Francis  W.  Parker, 

of  the   Cook  County  Normal  Sckocl. 


Col.  Parker  needs  no  introduction  to  the  teachers  of  America.  The 
thousands  who  have  drawn  aid  and  inspriation  fiom  the  Talks  on  Teaching 
and  all  to  whom  the  name  of  Col.  Parker  has  for  years  stood  for  aggres- 
sive leadership  in  education  will  want  this  book,  which  contains  the  resu.ts 
of  the  author's  most  mature  thought  and  work. 

The  book  is  the  most  mature  expression  of  the  educational  belief  r-f 
its  author,  formed  after  many  years  of  study  and  investigation. 

The  ideas  presented  and  the  methods  outlined  are  the  outcome  of 
work  done  in  the  Cook  Co.  Normal  School.  The  doctrine  of  concentra- 
tion alone  is  of  sufficient  importance  and  interest  to  arrest  the  attention  of 
every  thinking  teacher  in  America. 

WHAT   IT   CONTAINS: 

The  following  titles  of  the  chapters  of  the  book  will  indicate  the  sub- 
jects of  which  it  treats:  Chap.  I.  The  Child  ;  Chap.  II.  The  Central  Sub- 
jects of  Study  ;  Chap.  III.  Form  as  a  Mode  of  Judgment ;  Chap.  IV.  Number 
and  its  Relation  to  the  Central  Subjects;  Chap.  V.  What  can  be  done  with 
numbers  ;  Chap.  VI.  Attention ;  Chap.  VII.  Observation  ;  Chap.  VIII  Lan- 
guage and  Hearing  Language;  Chap.  IX.  Reading  and  its  Relations  to 
the  Central  Subject;  Chap.  X.  Modes  of  Expression;  Chap.  XI.  Unity  i  f 
Expressive  Acts;  Chap.  XII.  Acquisition  of  the  Forms  of  Thought  Ex 
pression;  Chap.  XIII.  Speech  and  Writing  ;  Chap.  XIV.  School  Govern- 
ment and  Moral  Training;  Chap.  XV.  Summary  of  the  Doctrine  of  Con- 
centration ;  Chap.  XVI.  Democracy  and  Education. 

The  whole  makes  a  large  volume  of  507  pages.  Nearly  two  solid  years 
have  been  spent  in  its  preparation.  Nearly  2000  advance  orders  have  been 
received  for  it.  It  is  finely  printed  and  durably  bound  as  a  book  of  its 
value  and  importance  deserves  to  be.  There  are  topic  headings  and  ques- 
tions for  the  student. 

Price,  $1.50;  to  teachers,  $1.20;  postage,  14  cents. 

E.  L.  KELLOGG  &  CO.,  New  York  and  Chicago. 


COMMENTS  OF  EDUCATORS  ON  PARKER'S 
TALKS  ON  PEDAGOGICS. 

' { It  is  in  every  respect  an  admirable  book,  replete  with  sound  philos- 
ophy, and  practical  methods."  — Supt.  JOHN  SWETT,  San  Francisco. 

"  I  find  the  book  slow  reading  since  it  obliges  me  to  keep  up  a  *  brown 
study.'  Every  page  bears  evidence  of  earnest  study." 

— Dr.  E.  E.  WHITE,  Ohio. 

"I  am  prepared  to  pronounce  it  the  greatest  of  Col.  Parker's  great 
works.  It  is  a  work  that  should  be  studied  by  every  teacher  in  the  coun- 
try." —Supt.  J.  H.  PHILLIPS,  Birmingham,  Ala. 

"  It  is  a  work  of  extraordinary  value." 

— Prin.  T.  B.  Noss,  California  (Pa.)  Normal  School. 

"A  masterly  exposition  of  the  theory  of  concentration  destined  to 
exercise  great  influence  over  educational  thought  and  practice  of  the  twen- 
tieth century." 

—Prin.  ALBERT  E.  MALTBY,  Slippery  Rock  Normal  School,  Penn. 

"I  have  examined  with  great  interest  and  profit  'Talks  on  Pedago- 
gics.' It  is  an  able  plea  for  the  professional  attitude.  It  appeals  not  only 
to  the  intelligence,  but  also  to  the  conscience  of  teachers.  It  treats  the 
child  reverently  and  recognizes  the  varied  possibilities  that  are  opened  to 
him  through  education.  The  doctrine  of  concentration,  more  or  less  new 
in  this  country,  is  treated,  not  from  the  theoretical  standpoint,  but  from 
ths  point  of  view  of  honest,  patient  experiment  and  practice.  As  a  help 
to  teachers  it  will  rank  among  the  very  best  of  current  pedagogical  works." 
—SAMUEL  T.  BUTTON,  Supt.  of  Schools,  Brookline,  Mass. 

"It  is  a  great  book  and  indicates  the  profound  thought  and  the  sub- 
lime ideal  inspiring  the  author  during  the  years  of  his  study  of  the  child 
and  education." 

— CLARENCE  E.  MELENEY,  Teachers  College,  New  York  City. 

"I  regard  Col.  Parker's  « Talks  on  Pedagogies'  as  one  of  the  very 
best  books  in  my  library.  I  always  read  anything  from  Col.  Parker's  pen 
with  interest  and  profit.  This,  his  latest  production,  is  his  best." 

—A.  W.  EDSON,  Worcester,  Mass. 

"  Parker's  *  Talks  on  Pedagogics*  received.  I  like  it.  It  is  a  splendid 
acquisition  to  pedagogical  literature.  It  should  be  in  the  hands  of  every 
teacher."  — Z.  X.  SNYDER,  Pres.  State  Normal  School,  Greeley,  Col. 

41  It  is  full  of  wise  suggestions  and  interesting  thoughts.  No  teacher 
can  afford  to  leave  this  book  unread;" 

— E.  A.  SHELDON,  Prin.  State  Normal  School,  Oswego,  N.  Y. 

•'There  never  has  appeared  in  English  a  book  on  pedagogics  more 
pregnant  with  thought  more  suggestive  to  teachers,  better  adapted  10  their 
wants.  Every  chapter,  every  paragraph  is  full  of  suggestion  and  help. 
The  principles  which  underlie,  rather  than  the  so-called  '  methods,'  receive 
primary  attention,  though  there  are  sufficient  illustrations  to  suggest  the 
manner  of  carrying  out  and  enforcing  a  principle.  No  one  doubts  after 
reading  this  book  that  Herbart's  '  Theory  of  Concentration '  is  thoroughly 
sound  and  entirely  applicable  to  the  training  of  children.  As  American 
teachers  we  are  apt  to  say,  '  Well,  that  may  apply  in  German  schools,  but 
we  cannot  apply  it  in  America.'  Col.  Parker  has  proven  that  '  Concentra- 
tion '  is  a  sound  principle  in  education  everywhere,  and  that  its  applica- 
tion in  our  schools  is  entirely  feasible.  —Dr.  LEVI  SEELEY. 

Price,  $1 .50;  to  teachers,  $1.2O;  postage,  14  cts. 
JET.  L.  KELLOGG  &  CO*   yew  York  and  Chicago. 


BOOKS  T.  G.  ROOFER. 

These  are  the  authorized  editions*  complete  with  topic 

headings  and  other  aids  for  the  student  and  are 

half  the  price  of  others. 


APPERCEPTION: 

OR  "A  POT  OF  GREEN  FEATHERS,"  is  a  very  simple  book  on  psychol- 
ogy —  strange  as  the  title  may  seem.  It  discusses  perception  and  shows 
how  perception  becomes  apperception.  It  is  a  book  that  any  teacher  may 
read  with  profit.  Commissioner  Harris  recommends  it,  so  do  other  emi- 
nent educators.  Remember  this  edition  has  many  special  points  of  ex- 
cellence. It  is  accurate,  has  paragraph  headings,  is  clearly  printed  and 
well  bound  in  limp  cloth. 

Price  250.  ;  to  teachers,  2oc.  ;  postage  sc. 

OBJECT  TEACHING: 

OR  WORDS  AND  THINGS.  The  author  has  done  an  important  service 
to  teachers  in  pointing  out  thus  clearly  the  foundation  principles  on  which 
the  much-talked-of  but  little  understood  subject  of  Object  Teaching  should 
be  based. 

It  takes  a  simple  subject  —  the  Duck  —  and  gives  a  very  clear  and  correct 
exposition  of  the  right  methed  of  Object  Teaching  by  a  series  of  lessons. 
The  teacher  will  be  set  to  work  in  the  right  direction  by  reading  it.  There 
are  plenty  of  books  which  furnish  material  for  Object  Lessons  ;  no  other 
that  gives  so  admirably  the  principles  and  method. 

This  edition  is  published  by  special  permission  of  the  author  who  has 
written  a  preface  and  added  topic  headings  and  questions  for  the  student. 
Limp  cloth,  i6mo.    Price  250.  ;  to  teachers,  2oc.  ; 
by  mail,  sc.  extra. 

STUDIES  AND  OCCUPATIONS. 

Suitable  for  Children  between  the  ages  of  7  and  9.  Everything  that  Mr. 
Rooper  writes  is  instructive  and  interesting.  This  is  a  practical  and  sug- 
gestive discussion  of  what  should  be  the  child's  work  in  school  between  the 
ages  of  seven  and  nine,  with  a  time  table,  or  program  based  upon  the 
author's  ideas.  It  is  reprinted  from  the  Summer  Number  (1894)  of  THE 
SCHOOL  JOURNAL.  Only  a  limited  edition  has  been  issued  and  it  will  not 
be  reprinted. 

Manilla  Covers.    Price,  isc.  postpaid. 

DRAWING  IN  INFANT  SCHOOLS: 

A  STUDY  IN  PRACTICAL  PSYCHOLOGY.  All  of  Mr.  Rooper  's  writings  on 
educational  topics  are  based  upon  careful  observation  and  experiment,  and 
are  extremely  practical  and  interesting.  This  little  book  is  no  exception. 
Everyone  interested  in  the  study  of  the  mental  development  of  the  child 
should  read  it. 

flanilla  Covers.    Price,  isc.  postpaid. 


E.  L.  KELLOGG  &  CO 


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14  DAY  USE 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 

EDUCATION-PSYCHOLOGY 
LIBRARY 

TEL.  NO.  642-4209 
This  book  is  due  on  the  last  date  stamped  below,  or 

on  the  date  to  which  renewed. 
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WAR  8 


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(P2357slO)476 — A-32 


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University  of  California 

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UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


